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<select id="email-citation-format" name="citation-format" class="action-panel-selector email-citation-format">
<option selected="selected" value="summary">Summary</option>
<option value="summary-text">Summary (text)</option>
<option value="abstract">Abstract</option>
<option value="abstract-text">Abstract (text)</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="include-supplemental-container">
<input type="checkbox" aria-label="Include MeSH and other data" name="include-supplemental" id="email-include-supplemental" class="email-include-supplemental">
<label for="email-include-supplemental" class="email-include-supplemental-label">MeSH and other data</label>
</div>
<div class="form-field recaptcha ">
<div class="g-recaptcha" id="id-recaptcha" data-sitekey="6LfsWHMdAAAAAClKbtOpjQ2pMjgsGxvv7NdZW9uI"></div>
</div>
<div id="captcha-error-message" class="usa-input-error-message captcha-validation-message" role="alert"></div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Sending..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="email"
data-ga-label="send">
Send email
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Email citations' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_email_panel"
aria-controls="email-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="email"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="email-search-details" value="" />
<input type="hidden" name="email-search-details-hash" value="0e42663a6c3bd85498fcb88798998fed7bfdc45d457db35281e41afe13cc0524" />
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="collections-action-panel"
class="collections-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel"
aria-hidden="true"
data-collections-open-panel-enabled="false"
data-collections-open-panel-url-hash="#open-collections-panel">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h3 class="action-panel-heading">
Add to Collections
</h3>
<form id="collections-action-panel-form"
class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors"
data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/"
data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/"
data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/"
data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/"
data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100"
data-add-to-collection-max-amount="1000"
data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="MiHcx0mUXAUrM5Z23BEupHqjvKBYPaYy35rhaQPgxbHVGw5SGUhwTPWX3OjaILwS">
<div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup">
<ul class="radio-group-items">
<li>
<input type="radio"
id="collections-action-panel-new"
class="collections-new"
name="collections"
value="new"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_new">
<label for="collections-action-panel-new">Create a new collection</label>
</li>
<li>
<input type="radio"
id="collections-action-panel-existing"
class="collections-existing"
name="collections"
value="existing"
checked="true"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing">
<label for="collections-action-panel-existing">Add to an existing collection</label>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="controls-wrapper">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls">
<label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Name your collection:
</label>
<input
type="text"
name="add-to-new-collection"
id="collections-action-panel-add-to-new"
class="collections-action-add-to-new"
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/"
maxlength="100"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="create_collection"
data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection">
<div class="collections-new-name-too-long usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Name must be less than 100 characters
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls">
<label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label">
Choose a collection:
</label>
<select id="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing"
class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="select_collection"
data-ga-label="($('#collections-action-add-to-existing').val() === 'Favorites') ? 'Favorites' : 'non_favorites_collection'">
</select>
<div class="collections-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Unable to load your collection due to an error<br>
<a href="#">Please try again</a>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Adding..."
data-pinger-ignore
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="add">
Add
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Add to Collections' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_collections_panel"
aria-controls="collections-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="bibliography-action-panel"
class="bibliography-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel"
aria-hidden="true"
data-bibliography-open-panel-enabled="false"
data-bibliography-open-panel-url-hash="#open-bibliography-panel">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h3 class="action-panel-heading">
Add to My Bibliography
</h3>
<form id="bibliography-action-panel-form"
class="bibliography-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors"
data-add-to-bibliography-max-amount="100"
data-add-to-bibliography-batch-size="10"
data-bibliography-delegates-url="/list-bibliography-delegates/"
data-add-to-bibliography-url="/add-to-bibliography/"
data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/"
data-mybib-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/mybibliography/">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="MiHcx0mUXAUrM5Z23BEupHqjvKBYPaYy35rhaQPgxbHVGw5SGUhwTPWX3OjaILwS">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap bibliographies-controls">
<div class="choice-group">
<ul class="bibliographies-action-add radio-group-items">
<li>
<input name="bibliography" id="my-bibliography" class="my-bibliography" type="radio" checked/>
<label for="my-bibliography">My Bibliography</label>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="bibliographies-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Unable to load your delegates due to an error<br>
<a href="#">Please try again</a>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Adding..."
data-pinger-ignore>
Add
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Add to bibliography' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_bibliography_panel"
aria-controls="bibliography-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="mybib"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="saved-search-action-panel" class="saved-search-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true"
data-saved-search-open-panel-enabled="false"
data-saved-search-open-panel-url-hash="#open-saved-search-panel">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h2 class="action-panel-heading">
Your saved search
</h2>
<form id="saved-search-action-panel-form"
class="saved-search-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form"
data-create-saved-search-url="/create-saved-search/"
data-try-search-terms-url="/try-search-term/"
data-saved-search-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/searches/">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="MiHcx0mUXAUrM5Z23BEupHqjvKBYPaYy35rhaQPgxbHVGw5SGUhwTPWX3OjaILwS">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-name" class="action-panel-label saved-search-name-label required-field-asterisk">
Name of saved search:
</label>
<input maxlength="200"
type="text"
name="saved-search-name"
id="saved-search-name"
class="saved-search-name"
value=""
required
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/">
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-term" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Search terms:
</label>
<textarea name="saved-search-term" id="saved-search-term" class="saved-search-term" required></textarea>
</div>
<div class="test-search-term-wrap">
<a href="#" class="try-search-term">Test search terms</a>
</div>
<div class="choice-group action-panel-extra-margin-top">
<span class="action-panel-label" id="fieldset-label">
Would you like email updates of new search results?
</span>
<fieldset id="saved-search-alert" aria-describedby="fieldset-label">
<legend class="usa-sr-only">Saved Search Alert Radio Buttons</legend>
<ul class="radio-group-items">
<li>
<input type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-yes" class="saved-search-alert-yes" name="saved-search-alert" value="yes" checked>
<label for="saved-search-alert-yes" class="action-panel-label">Yes</label>
</li>
<li>
<input aria-label="No radio input" type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-no" class="saved-search-alert-no" name="saved-search-alert" value="no">
<label for="saved-search-alert-no" class="action-panel-label">No</label>
</li>
</ul>
</fieldset>
</div>
<div class="alert-schedule-wrap">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label class="action-panel-label">
Email:
</label>
<span aria-label="Email address" id="saved-search-email" class="action-panel-label"><span class="action-panel-label-bold"></span> (<a class="myncbi-account-settings" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/settings/">change</a>)</span>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top">
<label for="saved-search-frequency" class="action-panel-label">
Frequency:
</label>
<select id="saved-search-frequency" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-frequency">
<option value="monthly">Monthly</option>
<option value="weekly">Weekly</option>
<option value="daily">Daily</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-monthly-additional">
<label for="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="action-panel-label">
Which day?
</label>
<select id="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector">
<option value="Sunday">The first Sunday</option>
<option value="Monday">The first Monday</option>
<option value="Tuesday">The first Tuesday</option>
<option value="Wednesday">The first Wednesday</option>
<option value="Thursday">The first Thursday</option>
<option value="Friday">The first Friday</option>
<option value="Saturday">The first Saturday</option>
<option value="day">The first day</option>
<option value="weekday">The first weekday</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-weekly-additional">
<label for="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="action-panel-label">
Which day?
</label>
<select id="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-weekly-on-day">
<option value="Sunday">Sunday</option>
<option value="Monday">Monday</option>
<option value="Tuesday">Tuesday</option>
<option value="Wednesday">Wednesday</option>
<option value="Thursday">Thursday</option>
<option value="Friday">Friday</option>
<option value="Saturday">Saturday</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-report" class="action-panel-label">
Report format:
</label>
<select id="saved-search-report" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-report">
<option value="DocSum">Summary</option>
<option value="DocSumText">Summary (text)</option>
<option value="Abstract">Abstract</option>
<option value="AbstractText">Abstract (text)</option>
<option value="MEDLINE">PubMed</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-amount" class="action-panel-label">
Send at most:
</label>
<select id="saved-search-amount" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-amount">
<option value="1">1 item</option>
<option value="5" selected>5 items</option>
<option value="10">10 items</option>
<option value="20">20 items</option>
<option value="50">50 items</option>
<option value="100">100 items</option>
<option value="200">200 items</option>
</select>
</div>
<div>
<input type="checkbox" id="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="saved-search-send-if-no-result" name="saved-search-send-if-no-result">
<label for="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="action-panel-label smaller-checkbox">
Send even when there aren't any new results
</label>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap option-text-in-email-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-email-text" class="action-panel-label">
Optional text in email:
</label>
<textarea name="saved-search-email-text"
id="saved-search-email-text"
class="saved-search-email-text"></textarea>
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Saving..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="save">
Save
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Your saved search' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_saved_search_panel"
aria-controls="saved-search-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="citation-manager-action-panel" class="citation-manager-action-panel action-panel" aria-hidden="true">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h2 class="action-panel-heading">
Create a file for external citation management software
</h2>
<form id="citation-manager-action-panel-form"
class="action-panel-content action-form"
action="/results-export-ids/"
data-by-search-action="/results-export-search-data/"
data-by-ids-action="/results-export-ids/"
method="post"
data-by-search-method="post"
data-by-ids-method="post">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="MiHcx0mUXAUrM5Z23BEupHqjvKBYPaYy35rhaQPgxbHVGw5SGUhwTPWX3OjaILwS">
<input name="results-format" type="hidden" value="pubmed"/>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Sending..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="citation_manager"
data-ga-label="save">
Create file
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Send citations to citation manager' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_citation_manager_panel"
aria-controls="citation-manager-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="citation_manager"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="rss-action-panel" class="rss-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h2 class="action-panel-heading">
Your RSS Feed
</h2>
<form id="rss-action-panel-form"
class="rss-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form"
data-create-rss-feed-url="/create-rss-feed-url/"
data-search-form-term-value="">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="MiHcx0mUXAUrM5Z23BEupHqjvKBYPaYy35rhaQPgxbHVGw5SGUhwTPWX3OjaILwS">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="rss-name" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Name of RSS Feed:
</label>
<input maxlength="200"
placeholder="Name"
type="text"
name="rss-name"
id="rss-name"
class="rss-name"
value=''
required
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/">
</div>
<div class="rss-limit-wrap">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top">
<label for="rss-limit" class="action-panel-label">
Number of items displayed:
</label>
<select id="rss-limit" class="no-border-panel-selector rss-limit">
<option value="5">5</option>
<option value="10">10</option>
<option value="15" selected="selected">15</option>
<option value="20">20</option>
<option value="50">50</option>
<option value="100">100</option>
</select>
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Creating..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="save">
Create RSS
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Your RSS' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_rss_panel"
aria-controls="rss-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap rss-link-copy-wrap">
<label for="rss-link" class="usa-sr-only">RSS Link</label>
<input placeholder="Your RSS Feed Link" type="text" name="rss-link" id="rss-link" class="rss-link" title="RSS Link">
<button
type="button"
disabled
class="rss-link-copy-button disabled"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="rss"
data-ga-label="copy">
Copy
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="article-page" id="article-page" data-article-pmid="27372424">
<aside class="page-sidebar">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<div class="full-text-links">
<div class="full-view">
<h3 class="title">
Full text links
</h3>
<div class="full-text-links-list">
<a class="link-item
dialog-focus"
href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0142-9612(16)30209-5"
target="_blank"
rel="noopener"
ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&amp;is_pmc=False&amp;PrId=3048&amp;itool=Abstract-def&amp;log$=linkouticon&amp;uid=27372424&amp;db=pubmed&amp;nlmid=8100316"
title="See full text options at Elsevier Science"
data-ga-category="full_text"
data-ga-action="Elsevier Science"
data-ga-label="27372424"
><img src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corehtml/query/egifs/https:--linkinghub.elsevier.com-ihub-images-PubMedLink.gif" alt="Elsevier Science full text link"><span class="text">
Elsevier Science
</span></a><a class="link-item
pmc
"
href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/pmid/27372424/"
target="_blank"
rel="noopener"
ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&amp;is_pmc=True&amp;PrId=3494&amp;itool=Abstract-def&amp;log$=linkouticon&amp;uid=27372424&amp;db=pubmed&amp;nlmid=8100316"
title="Free full text at PubMed Central"
data-ga-category="full_text"
data-ga-action="PMC"
data-ga-label="27372424"
><span class="text">
Free PMC article
</span></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="short-view">
<a href="#" class="full-text-links-button full-text-links-dialog-trigger">
Full text links
</a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="actions-buttons sidebar"><h3 class="title">Actions</h3><div class="inner-wrap"><button class="citation-button citation-dialog-trigger"
aria-label="Open dialog with citation text in different styles"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="cite"
data-ga-label="open"
data-all-citations-url="/27372424/citations/"
data-citation-style="nlm"
data-pubmed-format-link="/27372424/export/"><span class="button-label">Cite</span></button><link type="text/css" href="ncbi-overlay-block/src/overlay-block.css"><div class="collections-button-container" data-article-id="27372424" data-article-db="pubmed"><button class="collections-button collections-dialog-trigger"
aria-label="Save article in MyNCBI collections."
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="click"
data-ga-label="collections_button"
data-collections-open-dialog-enabled="false"
data-collections-open-dialog-url="https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F27372424%2F%23open-collections-dialog"
data-in-collections="false"><span class="button-label">Collections</span></button><div class="overlay" role="dialog"><div id="collections-action-dialog"
class="dialog collections-dialog"
aria-hidden="true"><div class="title">Add to Collections</div><div class="collections-action-panel action-panel"><form id="collections-action-dialog-form"
class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors"
data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/"
data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/"
data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/"
data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100"
data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/"><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="MiHcx0mUXAUrM5Z23BEupHqjvKBYPaYy35rhaQPgxbHVGw5SGUhwTPWX3OjaILwS"><div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup"><ul class="radio-group-items"><li><input type="radio"
id="collections-action-dialog-new"
class="collections-new"
name="collections"
value="new"
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="click"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_new"><label for="collections-action-dialog-new">Create a new collection</label></li><li><input type="radio"
id="collections-action-dialog-existing"
class="collections-existing"
name="collections"
value="existing"
checked="true"
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="click"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing"><label for="collections-action-dialog-existing">Add to an existing collection</label></li></ul></div><div class="controls-wrapper"><div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls"><label for="collections-action-dialog-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Name your collection:
</label><input
type="text"
name="add-to-new-collection"
id="collections-action-dialog-add-to-new"
class="collections-action-add-to-new"
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/"
maxlength="100"
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="create_collection"
data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection"><div class="collections-new-name-too-long usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Name must be less than 100 characters
</div></div><div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls"><label for="collections-action-dialog-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label">
Choose a collection:
</label><select id="collections-action-dialog-add-to-existing"
class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing"
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Cathepsin S-cleavable, multi-block HPMA copolymers for improved SPECT/CT imaging of pancreatic cancer
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1
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1
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1
</a><span class="author-sup-separator">&nbsp;</span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985830 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States." href="#short-view-affiliation-2" ref="linksrc=author_aff">
2
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1
</a><span class="author-sup-separator">&nbsp;</span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985830 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States." href="#short-view-affiliation-2" ref="linksrc=author_aff">
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1
</a><span class="author-sup-separator">&nbsp;</span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985830 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States." href="#short-view-affiliation-2" ref="linksrc=author_aff">
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1
</a><span class="author-sup-separator">&nbsp;</span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985870 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States." href="#short-view-affiliation-3" ref="linksrc=author_aff">
3
</a><span class="author-sup-separator">&nbsp;</span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985830 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States." href="#short-view-affiliation-2" ref="linksrc=author_aff">
2
</a><span class="author-sup-separator">&nbsp;</span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Eppley Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985950 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States." href="#short-view-affiliation-4" ref="linksrc=author_aff">
4
</a></sup></span>
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Affiliations
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<li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-1"
id="short-view-affiliation-1"
><sup class="key">1</sup> Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985830 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States.</li>
<li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-2"
id="short-view-affiliation-2"
><sup class="key">2</sup> Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985830 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States.</li>
<li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-3"
id="short-view-affiliation-3"
><sup class="key">3</sup> Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985870 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States.</li>
<li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-4"
id="short-view-affiliation-4"
><sup class="key">4</sup> Eppley Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985950 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="equal-contrib-block">
<div class="equal-contrib-explanation" id="short-view-equal-contrib-explanation"><sup class="key">#</sup> Contributed equally.</div>
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Abstract
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<p>
This work continues our efforts to improve the diagnostic and radiotherapeutic effectiveness of nanomedicine platforms by developing approaches to reduce the non-target accumulation of these agents. Herein, we developed multi-block HPMA copolymers with backbones that are susceptible to cleavage by cathepsin S, a protease that is abundantly expressed in tissues of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). Specifically, a bis-thiol terminated HPMA telechelic copolymer containing 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) was synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Three maleimide modified linkers with different sequences, including cathepsin S degradable oligopeptide, scramble oligopeptide and oligo ethylene glycol, were subsequently synthesized and used for the extension of the HPMA copolymers by thiol-maleimide click chemistry. All multi-block HPMA copolymers could be labeled by (177)Lu with high labeling efficiency and exhibited high serum stability. In vitro cleavage studies demonstrated highly selective and efficient cathepsin S mediated cleavage of the cathepsin S-susceptible multi-block HPMA copolymer. A modified multi-block HPMA copolymer series capable of Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) was utilized to investigate the rate of cleavage of the multi-block HPMA copolymers in monocyte-derived macrophages. Confocal imaging and flow cytometry studies revealed substantially higher rates of cleavage for the multi-block HPMA copolymers containing the cathepsin S-susceptible linker. The efficacy of the cathepsin S-cleavable multi-block HPMA copolymer was further examined using an in vivo model of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Based on the biodistribution and SPECT/CT studies, the copolymer extended with the cathepsin S susceptible linker exhibited significantly faster clearance and lower non-target retention without compromising tumor targeting. Overall, these results indicate that exploitation of the cathepsin S activity in MPS tissues can be utilized to substantially lower non-target accumulation, suggesting this is a promising approach for the development of diagnostic and radiotherapeutic nanomedicine platforms.
</p>
</div>
<p>
<strong class="sub-title">
Keywords:
</strong>
Cathepsin S; FRET imaging; HPMA; Mononuclear phagocyte system; Pancreatic cancer; SPECT/CT imaging.
</p>
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Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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itemprop="contentUrl"
aria-describedby="figure-caption-0"
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data-image-width="800"
data-image-height="468"
data-image-alt="Fig. 1"
data-pmc-id="PMC5018995"
data-figure-id="F1">
<img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail"
id="article-image-0"
src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/52f1/5018995/18b0129dc5e7/nihms-814792-f0001.gif"
alt="Fig. 1" />
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 1 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Schematic design of the cathepsin… </p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 1 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Schematic design of the cathepsin S-susceptible, multi-block HPMA copolymers. (Left) The <sup> 177 </sup> Lu-labeled… </p></div>
</div>
<figcaption id="figure-caption-0" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description">
<strong class="figure-label">
Fig. 1
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents">Schematic design of the cathepsin S-susceptible, multi-block HPMA copolymers. (Left) The <sup>177</sup>Lu-labeled biodegradable multi-block HPMA copolymers (MP-c), which could be cleaved by cathepsin S, were evaluated using various <i>in vitro</i> and <i>in vivo</i> studies. (Right) The FRET biodegradable multi-block HPMA copolymers (FMP-c) were designed for studying the intracellular cleavage of the copolymers.</div>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="figure-item "
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<img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail"
id="article-image-1"
src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/52f1/5018995/03524f1a7db3/nihms-814792-f0002.gif"
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 2 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> GPC profiles of chain extension… </p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 2 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> GPC profiles of chain extension of HPMA copolymers. (A) GPC profile of deprotected… </p></div>
</div>
<figcaption id="figure-caption-1" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description">
<strong class="figure-label">
Fig. 2
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents">GPC profiles of chain extension of HPMA copolymers. (A) GPC profile of deprotected HPMA telechelic block copolymer (d-BP) before and after chain extension by cathepsin S susceptible linker (CL), scramble peptidic linker (SL) and small peg linker (PL); (B) GPC profile of deprotected FITC ended HPMA telechelic block copolymer (d-FBP) before and after chain extension by dabcyl conjugated cathepsin S-susceptible linker (DCL), dabcyl conjugated scrambled peptidic linker (DSL) and Dabcyl conjugated small peg linker (DPL).</div>
</figcaption>
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<img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail"
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src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/52f1/5018995/40fff9aebeb2/nihms-814792-f0003.gif"
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 3 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> GPC profile of multi-block HPMA… </p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 3 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> GPC profile of multi-block HPMA copolymer fraction and degradation products after incubation with… </p></div>
</div>
<figcaption id="figure-caption-2" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description">
<strong class="figure-label">
Fig. 3
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents">GPC profile of multi-block HPMA copolymer fraction and degradation products after incubation with cathepsin S at different time intervals. (A) MP-c, (B) MP-s and (C) MP-p.</div>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="figure-item "
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href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/52f1/5018995/84a45e8ff32e/nihms-814792-f0004.jpg"
itemprop="contentUrl"
aria-describedby="figure-caption-3"
role="button"
data-image-width="800"
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data-image-alt="Fig. 4"
data-pmc-id="PMC5018995"
data-figure-id="F4">
<img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail"
id="article-image-3"
src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/52f1/5018995/99808aa96729/nihms-814792-f0004.gif"
alt="Fig. 4" />
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 4 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> (A) Radiolabeling efficiency of MPs… </p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 4 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> (A) Radiolabeling efficiency of MPs by incubating with 1 mCi of <sup> 177 </sup> LuCl… </p></div>
</div>
<figcaption id="figure-caption-3" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description">
<strong class="figure-label">
Fig. 4
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents">(A) Radiolabeling efficiency of MPs by incubating with 1 mCi of <sup>177</sup>LuCl<sub>3</sub> at 90 <sup>o</sup>C for 45 min. (B), (C) and (D) Radio-GPC profiles of <sup>177</sup>Lu-MP-c, <sup>177</sup>Lu-MP-s and <sup>177</sup>Lu-MP-p, correspondingly, before and after incubation with cathepsin S for 1 h and exposure to human plasma for 24 h.</div>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="figure-item "
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itemprop="contentUrl"
aria-describedby="figure-caption-4"
role="button"
data-image-width="800"
data-image-height="606"
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data-pmc-id="PMC5018995"
data-figure-id="F5">
<img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail"
id="article-image-4"
src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/52f1/5018995/62e37c866ee9/nihms-814792-f0005.gif"
alt="Fig. 5" />
</a>
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<div class="caption-wrap">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 5 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Evaluation of FRET effect in… </p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 5 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Evaluation of FRET effect in FMPs upon cathepsin S cleavage. (A) The fluorescence… </p></div>
</div>
<figcaption id="figure-caption-4" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description">
<strong class="figure-label">
Fig. 5
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents">Evaluation of FRET effect in FMPs upon cathepsin S cleavage. (A) The fluorescence intensity (519 nm) of d-FBP and FMP-c in the presence of cathepsin S at different incubation times. (B) and (C) The fluorescence intensity (519 nm) of FMP-s and FMP-p upon incubation of cathepsin S at different time intervals, respectively. (D) Fluorescence pictures of FMP-c, FMP-s, FMP-p and d-FBP in cleavage mixture under 365 nm UV light at different time intervals.</div>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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itemprop="contentUrl"
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 6 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Visualization of FITC fluorescence from… </p></div>
</div>
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<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 6 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Visualization of FITC fluorescence from FMPs in cathepsin S abundant human monocyte-differentiated macrophages… </p></div>
</div>
<figcaption id="figure-caption-5" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description">
<strong class="figure-label">
Fig. 6
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents">Visualization of FITC fluorescence from FMPs in cathepsin S abundant human monocyte-differentiated macrophages by FRET effect. (A) and (B) Representative confocal microscopy images of macrophages incubated with FMP-c, FMP-s, FMP-p and positive control (MP-c) at 6h and 12h, respectively. Lysotracker (red) visualized endolysomal compartments, DAPI (blue) denotes the nucleus and FITC (green) is associated with the copolymer. Scale bar = 20 μm. (C) and (D) Flow cytometry results showing the fluorescence regeneration at 519 nm of FMPs upon intracellular cleavage at 6 h and 12 h. (E) and (F) The median value of fluorescence intensity in macrophages at 6 h and 12 h quantified from flow cytometry. Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 3).<bold/> * <i>p</i> &lt; 0.05, ** <i>p</i> &lt; 0.01.</div>
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 7 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Representative SPECT/CT images of xenograft… </p></div>
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 7 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Representative SPECT/CT images of xenograft tumor bearing SCID mice after being intravenously administrated… </p></div>
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<figcaption id="figure-caption-6" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description">
<strong class="figure-label">
Fig. 7
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents">Representative SPECT/CT images of xenograft tumor bearing SCID mice after being intravenously administrated with <sup>177</sup>Lu-MPs at a dose of 600 μCi per mice at 24, 48, 72 and 144 h. Main organs and tumors have been pointed out by arrows (L - liver, H - heart, Li - liver, S - spleen, B bladder and T tumor).</div>
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<p> Fig. 8 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Autoradiography and the vessel staining… </p></div>
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<p> Fig. 8 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Autoradiography and the vessel staining by Hoechst 33342 of the tumor. Scale bar… </p></div>
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Fig. 8
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">Autoradiography and the vessel staining by Hoechst 33342 of the tumor. Scale bar = 1 mm.</div>
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<p> Scheme 1 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Synthesis of MP-c, MP-s and… </p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Scheme 1 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Synthesis of MP-c, MP-s and MP-p via RAFT polymerization and thiol-ene click chemistry. </p></div>
</div>
<figcaption id="figure-caption-8" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description">
<strong class="figure-label">
Scheme 1
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents">Synthesis of MP-c, MP-s and MP-p via RAFT polymerization and thiol-ene click chemistry.</div>
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<p> Scheme 2 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Synthesis of FMP-c, FMP-s and… </p></div>
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<p> Scheme 2 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Synthesis of FMP-c, FMP-s and FMP-p via RAFT polymerization and thiol-ene click chemistry. </p></div>
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Scheme 2
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents">Synthesis of FMP-c, FMP-s and FMP-p via RAFT polymerization and thiol-ene click chemistry.</div>
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<h2 class="title">
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<div id="related-links" class="related-links">
<h2 class="title">
Related information
</h2>
<ul class="related-links-list"><li><a title="Link to related Genes" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?linkname=pubmed_gene&amp;from_uid=27372424"
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Gene
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Gene (GeneRIF)
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