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<h1 itemprop="headline">Changing Stays? Duration of Supplemental Security Income Participation by First-Time Child Awardees and the Role of Continuing Disability Reviews</h1>
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<div id="hByline">by <span itemprop="author">Jeffrey Hemmeter, Michael Levere, Pragya Singh, and David C. Wittenburg</span><br>Social Security Bulletin, <abbr title="Volume">Vol.</abbr> 81 <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 2, 2021 (released May 2021)</div>
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<p id="synopsis" itemprop="description">This article provides new evidence of the changing role of the Supplemental Security Income (<abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>) program for low-income children since 1997. We use administrative records from the Social Security Administration to identify first-time <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees and track their histories in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and in the Social Security Disability Insurance program. <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participation lasted much longer for 2007 and 2012 awardees than for their 1997 counterparts. Therefore, <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> constitutes a larger part of the safety net than it did 20 years ago. However, we also find that the volume of continuing disability reviews, which determine continuation or cessation of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> eligibility and were conducted more frequently for 1997 awardees than for subsequent cohorts, had a major effect on length of program participation. This latter finding is especially important for considering future <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program dynamics, given that the number of continuing disability reviews has risen substantially since 2015.</p>
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<div class="eightypercent">
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<p>Jeffrey Hemmeter is the Acting Deputy Associate Commissioner for the Office of Research, Demonstration, and Employment Support, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, Social Security Administration. Michael Levere is a senior researcher, Pragya Singh is a researcher, and David Wittenburg is the disability business director at Mathematica.</p>
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<p><i>Acknowledgments:</i> We are grateful to Joy Cobb, Jackson Costa, and Lucie Schmidt for valuable feedback.</p>
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<p>Funding for this study was provided by the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Disability Statistics and Demographics at the University of New Hampshire, which is funded by the <abbr>U.S.</abbr> Department of Education, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (Grant <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> H133B100015).</p>
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<p>Contents of this publication are <a href="/policy/accessibility.html">not copyrighted</a>; any items may be reprinted, but citation of the <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> as the source is requested. The findings and conclusions presented in the <i>Bulletin</i> are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Social Security Administration.</p>
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</div>
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</div>
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<h2>Introduction</h2>
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<div class="abbrtable">
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<table>
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<caption>Selected Abbreviations</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:25%"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="1"></colgroup>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr></td>
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<td>continuing disability review</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span></td>
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<td>Consumer Price Index for All Urban Workers</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></td>
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<td>Disability Insurance</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr></td>
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<td>Social Security Administration</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></td>
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<td>Supplemental Security Income</td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</div>
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<p>The growing <span class="nobr">long-term</span> role of the Supplemental Security Income (<abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>) program in serving children in low-income families has been the subject of intense policy interest (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2018). <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>, which is administered by the Social Security Administration (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>), provides cash payments to eligible low-income children and working-age adults with disabilities—and to aged persons—who meet certain income and asset criteria.</p>
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<p>Although program enrollment has declined in recent years, the number of children who receive <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> has risen dramatically since 1996 despite the absence of major changes in eligibility criteria. The demographic, impairment, and geographic characteristics of these children have also changed, signaling a possible shift in how <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> serves children in low-income families. The increase in the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child caseload may indicate a growing role for the program in supporting youths with disabilities, a role potentially magnified by program participation that can continue over long periods. For example, previous studies of earlier cohorts of child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees show that payment receipt can last well into adulthood (Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies 2015; Davies, Rupp, and Wittenburg 2009).</p>
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<p>A better understanding of the growing role of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> in supporting children in low-income families depends on knowing how the experiences of recent <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees compare with those of previous awardees. Prior research has documented some shifts in length of program participation, but it has not compared cohorts of awardees over this period of large caseload growth.</p>
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<p>Another key to understanding <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>'s <span class="nobr">long-term</span> role is to know the extent to which administrative processes might affect the length of program participation. Children must meet strict disability, income, and asset criteria to enroll in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and, later, to continue receiving payments. After an <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> is required to conduct continuing disability reviews (<abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s) to verify the ongoing eligibility of child recipients. <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s are meant to occur at varying intervals, depending on the “diary” that <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> creates for the recipient, which is based on the individual's likelihood of medical improvement. If medical improvement is expected, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> generally conducts a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> within 6 to 18 months of award. If a child's impairment is considered nonpermanent and medical improvement is deemed possible, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> generally conducts a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> every 3 years. For children whose impairment is not expected to improve, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> is supposed to conduct <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s at least every 7 years.</p>
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<p>Some child recipients receive an <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award for low birth weight. In those cases, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> is required to conduct a special low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> when the recipient reaches 12 months of age. If <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> eligibility continues after a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>, the child is subject to the other, ongoing childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s described above.<sup><a href="#mn1" id="mt1">1</a></sup> The number of other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> conducts varies over time, depending on caseload size, administrative priorities, and budgets.<sup><a href="#mn2" id="mt2">2</a></sup></p>
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<p>In addition, eligibility redeterminations are required for all children who are still receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> when they reach age 18. Not surprisingly, children whose eligibility continues into adulthood after an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination have much longer average stays in the program than those whose participation ceases at age 18 (Hemmeter, Mann, and Wittenburg 2017).</p>
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<p>Since <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> initiated child <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s in fiscal year 1994, fluctuations in their annual volumes have been substantial. At times, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> has focused on conducting <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s as part of a broader program-integrity initiative. For example, in fiscal year 1999, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> conducted more than three times as many <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s (including <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations) as it did in fiscal year 2006. In the last few years, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> has again substantially increased the number of child <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s and <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations—particularly since fiscal year 2015, when the number first exceeded 300,000 per year (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2019a).</p>
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<p>This article provides new evidence on the changing role of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> for children in low-income families since 1997. We present findings for three cohorts of first-time child awardees (1997, 2007, and 2012) for which we have at least 5 years of follow-up data to measure program outcomes; namely, average periods of participation—hereafter, “program stays” or “payment durations”—and average cumulative payment amounts. The 1997 cohort represents the first group of child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees who were subject to the current <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> eligibility criteria through their entire potential tenure in the program. The 2007 and 2012 cohorts represent <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child recipients whose awards occurred after the major growth in child caseloads had begun. Hence, comparing these latter cohorts to the 1997 cohort will provide evidence on how compositional changes might affect average program stays. For each cohort, we track outcomes through 2017, and we examine whether payment duration varies by selected demographic, impairment, and program-participation characteristics. We also show how program stays change for youths after their <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination to illustrate the experiences of children receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> into adulthood.</p>
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<p>We find substantive variation in the payment-duration trends for first-time <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child awardees. The average durations for the 2007 and 2012 cohorts were much longer than that of the 1997 cohort, underscoring the growing importance of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>'s <span class="nobr">long-term</span> role for low-income families. Cross-cohort differences in program stays occurred among all demographic and impairment groups, suggesting that changes in cohort composition cannot explain the findings. <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s conducted during childhood were an important factor in these <span class="nobr">long-term</span> program dynamics, as members of the 1997 cohort faced <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s more frequently than the later cohorts did. We find that removing <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients from the rolls at earlier ages because of more frequent <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s might explain as much as half of the total differences between cohorts. Although program stays have risen over the long term, the recent increases in <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s, particularly since 2015, might reverse this trend for future cohorts.</p>
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<h2>Background</h2>
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<p>This section provides information about <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> eligibility requirements, discusses changes in the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> caseload, and highlights related literature on children's program stays. This information provides context on the factors that could drive differences in the length of program participation between the awardee cohorts we studied.</p>
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<p>Since 1996, the child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> caseload has grown dramatically despite the absence of changes in eligibility requirements. It reached a peak of over 1.32 million children in 2013, compared with about 880,000 children in 1997. The caseload has since declined, reaching 1.15 million in 2018 (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2019a). Despite the recent decline, the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child caseload rose by 30 percent from 1997 to 2018.</p>
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<p>The factors driving this growth are not well understood, though there is strong evidence of changes in both the impairment distribution and the geographic composition of the caseload (Government Accountability Office 2012; Aizer, Gordon, and Kearney 2013). Since 1997, the number of youths diagnosed with mental disorders has greatly increased (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2015). The growth in the caseload also has varied by state; Wittenburg and others (2015) found that more than half of this growth was concentrated in four large states: Texas, Pennsylvania, Florida, and California. Schmidt and Sevak (2017) found that substantial variations in state-level factors such as poverty rates also might have influenced these trends.</p>
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<h3>Initial <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Eligibility Requirements</h3>
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<p>To qualify for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments, a child must meet eligibility criteria related to disability, income, and assets. To meet the disability criteria, the child must be younger than 18 and have</p>
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<blockquote>a medically determinable physical or mental impairment which results in marked and severe functional limitations, and which can be expected to result in death or which has lasted or can be expected to last for a continuous period of not less than 12 months (42 <abbr>U.S.C.</abbr> §1382c[C][i]).</blockquote>
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<p class="noindent">The nonmedical criteria consist of limits on total income and assets, including the child's income and any parental income and resources “deemed” to the child (that is, treated as the child's own).</p>
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<p>Children who qualify for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> are eligible for a cash payment. In 2020, the federal maximum <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment was $783 per month, and 23 states provided an optional supplemental payment to children with disabilities.<sup><a href="#mn3" id="mt3">3</a></sup> Most child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients are also automatically eligible for Medicaid. In addition, their limited incomes indicate that many of these youths live in families eligible for other means-tested supports, such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (Romig 2017; Bailey and Hemmeter 2015).</p>
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<p>Although the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> medical eligibility requirements for children changed significantly in the years after the program's inception in 1974, there have been no major changes since 1996. Berkowitz and DeWitt (2013) documented the evolution of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>, noting how several important legislative changes and Supreme Court decisions transformed the eligibility requirements. The most recent major changes were enacted as part of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. This legislation partially reversed changes to <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> in the early 1990s by establishing the current childhood disability definition, which introduced the concept of “marked and severe functional limitations” to replace individualized functional assessments for determining a child's eligibility. The legislation also required a redetermination of eligibility at age 18 using the adult criteria for disability.</p>
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<h3>Ongoing Eligibility Requirements: <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s and Redeterminations</h3>
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<p>Unlike some other cash supports such as Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (<abbr title="TAN F">TANF</abbr>), <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments are not time-limited. Recipients can receive payments indefinitely, as long as they continue to meet the eligibility requirements. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> reassesses the medical eligibility of recipients during <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s, which are mandatory at 12 months of age in most cases for which low birth weight was a factor in the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award and at various regular intervals during the program stay, depending on the recipient's diary type; and during <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations, for all children still receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> at that point. As noted above, in the <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> uses the adult eligibility criteria.<sup><a href="#mn4" id="mt4">4</a></sup></p>
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<p>The frequency of childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s other than those for low birth weight depends on funding availability and other factors. The principal factor is the recipient's likelihood of medical improvement. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> categorizes cases based on whether medical improvement is expected, possible, or not expected, depending on the type of impairment. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> prioritizes cases with expected medical improvement for reviews. Unlike the <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination—for which <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> assesses the disability anew—<abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s require medical improvement to have occurred since the last favorable eligibility decision before <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> can remove the child from the program for medical reasons.</p>
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<p>The number of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> conducts has varied substantially since 1996, which may have affected program stays. Chart 1 shows large fluctuations in child <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s, driven primarily by wide swings in the number of other childhood reviews (those not tied to low birth weight or reaching age 18). Notably, from fiscal year 2005 to fiscal year 2014, these <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s dropped below 100,000 per year, with fewer than 10,000 (representing less than 0.1 percent of children receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>) in fiscal years 2007 and 2008. However, the incidence of other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s has recently increased sharply, to more than 200,000 per year since fiscal year 2015, representing about 16 percent of children receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> each year (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2019a). Below, we show that the likelihood of cessation of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> disability payments after a recipient's first-time award differs meaningfully by the year of award, which could drive cross-cohort differences in the average length of program participation.</p>
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<div class="svgChart chart700" id="chart1"> <img src="v81n2p17-chart01.svg" role="img" alt="Chart 1. Number of medical reviews conducted for S S I child recipients, by type, fiscal years 1997 through 2018. Stacked area chart with tabular version below.">
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<div class="table altTable"> <a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
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<table>
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 1.</span> Number of medical reviews conducted for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child recipients, by type, fiscal years <span class="nobr">1997–2018</span> (in thousands)</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:4em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="3" style="width:12em"></colgroup>
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<thead>
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<tr>
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<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Year</th>
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<th scope="col">Low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s</th>
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<th scope="col">Age-18 redeterminations</th>
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<th scope="col">Other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s</th>
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">1997</th>
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<td>7</td>
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<td>49</td>
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<td>0</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">1998</th>
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<td>18</td>
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<td>41</td>
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<td>91</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">1999</th>
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<td>10</td>
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<td>50</td>
|
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<td>183</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2000</th>
|
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<td>10</td>
|
|
<td>52</td>
|
|
<td>141</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2001</th>
|
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<td>9</td>
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<td>49</td>
|
|
<td>96</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2002</th>
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<td>13</td>
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|
<td>55</td>
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|
<td>164</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2003</th>
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<td>7</td>
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|
<td>54</td>
|
|
<td>127</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2004</th>
|
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<td>12</td>
|
|
<td>53</td>
|
|
<td>103</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2005</th>
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<td>14</td>
|
|
<td>55</td>
|
|
<td>61</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2006</th>
|
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<td>8</td>
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|
<td>41</td>
|
|
<td>19</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2007</th>
|
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<td>3</td>
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|
<td>71</td>
|
|
<td>4</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2008</th>
|
|
<td>5</td>
|
|
<td>69</td>
|
|
<td>5</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2009</th>
|
|
<td>13</td>
|
|
<td>101</td>
|
|
<td>11</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2010</th>
|
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<td>22</td>
|
|
<td>87</td>
|
|
<td>17</td>
|
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2011</th>
|
|
<td>19</td>
|
|
<td>93</td>
|
|
<td>25</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2012</th>
|
|
<td>16</td>
|
|
<td>82</td>
|
|
<td>65</td>
|
|
</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2013</th>
|
|
<td>19</td>
|
|
<td>92</td>
|
|
<td>53</td>
|
|
</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2014</th>
|
|
<td>18</td>
|
|
<td>86</td>
|
|
<td>89</td>
|
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2015</th>
|
|
<td>14</td>
|
|
<td>84</td>
|
|
<td>224</td>
|
|
</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2016</th>
|
|
<td>15</td>
|
|
<td>81</td>
|
|
<td>261</td>
|
|
</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2017</th>
|
|
<td>15</td>
|
|
<td>86</td>
|
|
<td>209</td>
|
|
</tr>
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|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2018</th>
|
|
<td>17</td>
|
|
<td>82</td>
|
|
<td>229</td>
|
|
</tr>
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</tbody>
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<tfoot>
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<tr>
|
|
<td class="onlyNote" colspan="4">SOURCE: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> (2019a, Table <abbr title="five">V</abbr>.D2).</td>
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</tr>
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</tfoot>
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</table>
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</div>
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</div>
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<p>Administrative funding levels affect <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s ability to conduct <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s. For example, in its fiscal year 2015 annual report on <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> (2019b) noted fluctuations in the number of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s over time, with the agency completing more cases in recent years because Congress provided additional funding for them. The historical fluctuation in <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s is notable because although <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> schedules <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s at regular intervals, the ability to conduct all scheduled <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s depends on capacity. Times of high demand for administrative staff time, such as periods with increased application volume, can lower that capacity.</p>
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<p>The fluctuations in <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s have important implications for <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination volume and outcomes. Specifically, the number of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s that recipients undergo before age 18 can affect the composition of the caseload that remains on the rolls at age 18. With <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> conducting relatively few other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s from fiscal year 2005 to fiscal year 2011 (Chart 1), many child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients in that period did not have their cases reviewed until age 18; correspondingly, the cessation rate resulting from <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations rose over that period (Chart 2).</p>
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<div class="svgChart chart320" id="chart2"> <img src="v81n2p17-chart02.svg" role="img" alt="Chart 2. Age-18 redetermination cessation rates, fiscal years 1997 through 2018. Line chart with tabular version below.">
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<div class="table altTable"> <a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
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<table>
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 2. </span><span class="nobr">Age-18</span> redetermination cessation rates, fiscal years <span class="nobr">1997–2018</span></caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:10em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:10em"></colgroup>
|
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<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Year</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percent</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1997</th>
|
|
<td>41.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1998</th>
|
|
<td>37.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1999</th>
|
|
<td>35.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2000</th>
|
|
<td>35.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2001</th>
|
|
<td>33.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2002</th>
|
|
<td>32.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2003</th>
|
|
<td>31.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2004</th>
|
|
<td>31.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2005</th>
|
|
<td>33.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2006</th>
|
|
<td>37.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2007</th>
|
|
<td>38.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2008</th>
|
|
<td>39.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2009</th>
|
|
<td>38.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2010</th>
|
|
<td>42.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2011</th>
|
|
<td>44.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2012</th>
|
|
<td>45.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2013</th>
|
|
<td>46.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2014</th>
|
|
<td>47.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2015</th>
|
|
<td>47.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2015</th>
|
|
<td>48.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2016</th>
|
|
<td>47.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2017</th>
|
|
<td>43.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2018</th>
|
|
<td>39.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="onlyNote" colspan="2">SOURCES: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> (2019b, Table B5; 2020, Table <abbr title="five">V</abbr>.D4).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
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<p>In addition, a recent proposed policy change could make <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s even more frequent for some <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients. As mentioned earlier, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> uses three <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> diary types—Medical Improvement Expected, Medical Improvement Possible, and Medical Improvement Not Expected—to schedule <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s. In November 2019, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> proposed adding a new category—Medical Improvement Likely—to this list.<sup><a href="#mn5" id="mt5">5</a></sup> If implemented, this policy change would alter the frequency of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s. Recipients in the Medical Improvement Likely category would have reviews scheduled more often than those classified as Medical Improvement Possible or Not Expected, but less often than those classified as Medical Improvement Expected. This policy proposal brings to the forefront the importance of analyzing patterns in <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s.</p>
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<h3>Disability Program Interactions</h3>
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<p>Another factor that could affect <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program stays is the possible concurrent receipt of Social Security Disability Insurance (<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>) benefits. The <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> medical eligibility criteria are the same as those for adult <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients, although <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> calculates benefit amounts based on previous covered earnings, with higher earnings leading to higher benefits. A child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipient can receive concurrent <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits as the dependent or survivor of a <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiary. In addition, unmarried adults who experience disability onset before age 22 can become eligible for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> as “disabled adult children” if at least one of their parents qualifies for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> or <span class="nobr">Old-Age</span> and Survivors Insurance benefits, although this is less common.<sup><a href="#mn6" id="mt6">6</a></sup> The potential for concurrent receipt of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits is important because <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits can provide additional income to current and former <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients and, equally important, can provide access to Medicare.</p>
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<h3>Related Studies on Program Stays</h3>
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<p>Several papers have examined <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program stays, with many of them using administrative data from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> to assess outcomes for different subgroups of awardees. Rupp and Scott (1995, 1998) provided one of the earliest and most comprehensive analyses of length of program participation, examining <span class="nobr">1974–1982</span> first-time <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees. They found that 36 percent of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients who were aged <span class="nobr">0–17</span> at award stayed continuously on the rolls for at least 10 years after first award. Rupp and Scott also used projections to simulate lifetime program stays for first-time awardees. They estimated that child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees would remain on the rolls for an average of 27 preretirement-age years.</p>
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<p>Davies, Rupp, and Wittenburg (2009) compared program stays for 1980 and 1997 <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child awardees to examine how durations for those cohorts differed over time. They found substantial differences between the two cohorts, particularly at age 18, which is consistent with the introduction of the <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination in 1996. In both cohorts, children who stayed in the program for 5 years were likely to stay on in adulthood. The authors argued that a lifecycle framework is needed to examine the <span class="nobr">long-term</span> program outcomes of children receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>.</p>
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<p>Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies (2015) extended the previous studies by explicitly modeling the interaction between <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> in accounting for total duration of participation in both programs. Their analysis included cohorts of child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees from 1980 through 2000. They found that a large share of former child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients receives either <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>, which the authors classified under a definition of “any disability benefit” receipt. As we describe in more detail below, we adopt that definition for this article.</p>
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<p>Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies (2015) also found that accounting for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> participation is important because it raises the observed rate of participation in either or both of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s disability programs, especially as recipients reach adulthood. The authors also found differences in program stays between the cohorts from 1980 through 2000, which likely reflects the major changes to <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program rules that occurred in 1996 and prior years, noted above. Importantly, a nontrivial portion of child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees died, although mortality generally decreased across successive cohorts. Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies found suggestive evidence that program stays initially increased after the 1996 welfare reform. For example, they found that the percentage of 2000 child awardees receiving benefits 10 years after their first award date was higher than that of 1997 awardees (51 percent versus 46 percent).</p>
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<p>Besides these studies, several other papers have examined <span class="nobr">long-term</span> changes in length of program participation stemming from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> policies. Hemmeter, Mann, and Wittenburg (2017) tracked the outcomes of child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients from their <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations through age 24. Not surprisingly, the authors found that the rates of receipt of any <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program benefits were much lower among recipients whose eligibility ceased after the <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination than for continuing recipients (18 percent versus 86 percent). Likewise, Deshpande (2016) used administrative data from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> to track <span class="nobr">long-term</span> outcomes (well into adulthood) of former child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients whose payments ceased after an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination. The author found that most youths who are removed from the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> rolls have low earnings and minimal earnings growth over time. She projected that an 18-year-old removed from <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>, relative to one who remained on the rolls, would have lower annual <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments (by $7,900), lower annual <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits (by $600), and higher annual earnings (by $3,000). In addition, Levere (2019) looked at <span class="nobr">long-term</span> patterns in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt for cohorts of child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees who began receiving payments after the 1991 relaxation of medical eligibility rules that stemmed from the 1990 <i>Sullivan v. Zebley</i> Supreme Court decision. He found that those who receive payments for a longer time in childhood have longer periods of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt during adulthood, suggesting that <span class="nobr">long-term</span> payment receipt tends to persist over time.</p>
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<p>Our article builds on this literature in several ways. First, we include more recent cohorts of child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees (2007 and 2012), which enables us to observe whether program stays identified in Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies (2015) continued to change in the period of rapid caseload growth and during the Great Recession. Second, we examine whether the large changes in the number of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s affected the duration of payment receipt. This analysis is particularly important for assessing whether the results from previous cohorts could help to predict outcomes for current cohorts. Finally, we estimate program stays by recipient characteristics to assess how changes in the composition of the cohort might affect payment duration overall. We also use regression models to assess whether these changes can explain differences between cohorts.</p>
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|
<h2>Data and Methods</h2>
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|
<p>We use administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> to identify first-time awardees and track their <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> participation histories, including their <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s and <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations (if applicable). We use <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s primary systems for tracking benefits: the Supplemental Security Record for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments and the Master Beneficiary Record and Payment History Update System for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits. We track benefit receipt (durations and total amounts received) for all beneficiaries in this sample until 2017, and we inflation-adjust all amounts to 2017 dollars using the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Workers <span class="nobr">(<abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W).</span></p>
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|
<p>We examine the descriptive patterns in durations and payment amounts over time for three cohorts of first-time <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child awardees: 1997, 2007, and 2012. For each cohort, we track participation through 2017, which allows a <span class="nobr">5-year</span> follow-up for all cohorts and a <span class="nobr">10-year</span> follow-up for the 1997 and 2007 cohorts.<sup><a href="#mn7" id="mt7">7</a></sup></p>
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|
<p>The number of first-time <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child awardees rose across the first three cohorts (Table 1). Growth in the number of child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees far exceeded growth in the <abbr>U.S.</abbr> child population; from 1997 to 2012, the number of new <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child awards increased by about 60 percent while the <abbr>U.S.</abbr> child population rose by 4 percent (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics 2019). Table 1 also includes the 2017 cohort to show how its characteristics compare with those of the earlier cohorts, which is important for assessing whether recent compositional changes might have affected cross-cohort differences. The population of first-time child awardees increased by 42 percent from 1997 to 2007, followed by another 14 percent increase from 2007 to 2012 and a decline of almost 15 percent from 2012 to 2017. The patterns between 2007 and 2017 likely reflect cyclical factors stemming from the Great Recession, such as lower employment and lower wages, which made more families eligible for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> (Maestas, Mullen, and Strand 2018), and the subsequent economic restabilization.</p>
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<div class="table" id="table1">
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<table>
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 1. </span>First-time child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees, by sex, age, impairment, and award cohort (in percent)</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:31em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="4" style="width:6em"></colgroup>
|
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<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
<th id="c4">2012</th>
|
|
<th id="c5">2017</th>
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</tr>
|
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</thead>
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<tbody>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub3" id="r1" headers="c1">Number of recipients</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c2">111,542</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c3">158,534</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c4">180,190</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c5">153,697</td>
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</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="c1">Sex</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r3" headers="r2 c1">Female</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2">38.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3">35.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c4">34.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c5">34.5</td>
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</tr>
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|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r4" headers="r2 c1">Male</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2">61.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3">64.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c4">65.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c5">65.5</td>
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|
</tr>
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|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r5" headers="c1">Age</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
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|
</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r5 c1">Younger than 8</th>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 c2">65.1</td>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 c3">63.7</td>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 c4">65.2</td>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 c5">66.5</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r7" headers="r5 r6 c1">Low birth weight, younger than 1</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c2">9.4</td>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c3">9.7</td>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c4">8.2</td>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c5">9.4</td>
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</tr>
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|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r8" headers="r5 r6 c1">Other</th>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c2">55.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c3">54.1</td>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c4">57.1</td>
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|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c5">57.1</td>
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</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r9" headers="r5 c1"><span class="nobr">8–12</span></th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c2">20.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c3">21.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c4">21.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c5">22.2</td>
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|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r10" headers="r5 c1"><span class="nobr">13–17</span></th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c2">14.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c3">14.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c4">12.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c5">11.3</td>
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|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r11" headers="c1">Impairment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r11 c1">Congenital anomalies</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c2">4.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c3">4.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c4">4.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c5">4.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r13" headers="r11 c1">Endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c2">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c3">0.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c4">0.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c5">0.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r14" headers="r11 c1">Infectious and parasitic diseases</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c2">0.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c3">0.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c4">0.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c5">0.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r15" headers="r11 c1">Injuries</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c2">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c3">0.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c4">0.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c5">0.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r16" headers="r11 c1">Mental impairments</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r17" headers="r11 r16 c1">Autistic disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c2">3.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c3">8.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c4">13.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c5">16.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r18" headers="r11 r16 c1">Developmental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c2">5.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c3">14.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c4">16.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c5">18.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r19" headers="r11 r16 c1">Childhood and adolescent disorders not elsewhere classified</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c2">8.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c3">18.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c4">20.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c5">18.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r20" headers="r11 r16 c1">Intellectual disability</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c2">26.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c3">12.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c4">8.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c5">6.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r21" headers="r11 r16 c1">Mood disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c2">4.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c3">6.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c4">5.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c5">4.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r22" headers="r11 r16 c1">Organic mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c2">3.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c3">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c4">1.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c5">1.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r23" headers="r11 r16 c1">Schizophrenic and other psychotic disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c2">1.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c3">0.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c4">0.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c5">0.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r24" headers="r11 r16 c1">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c2">3.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c3">3.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c4">3.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c5">3.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r25" headers="r11 c1">Neoplasms</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c2">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c3">1.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c4">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c5">1.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r26" headers="r11 c1">Diseases <span class="nobr">of the—</span></th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r27" headers="r11 r26 c1">Blood and blood-forming organs</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c2">1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c3">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c4">0.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c5">0.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r28" headers="r11 r26 c1">Circulatory system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c2">0.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c3">0.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c4">0.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c5">0.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r29" headers="r11 r26 c1">Digestive system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c2">0.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c3">0.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c4">1.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c5">2.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r30" headers="r11 r26 c1">Genitourinary system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c2">0.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c3">0.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c4">0.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c5">0.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r31" headers="r11 r26 c1">Musculoskeletal system and connective tissue</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c2">1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c3">0.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c4">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c5">0.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r32" headers="r11 r26 c1">Nervous system and sense organs</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c2">8.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c3">6.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c4">6.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c5">5.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r33" headers="r11 r26 c1">Respiratory system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c2">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c3">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c4">2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c5">1.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r34" headers="r11 r26 c1">Skin and subcutaneous tissue</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c2">0.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c3">0.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c4">0.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c5">0.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r35" headers="r11 c1">Other</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c2">14.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c3">11.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c4">10.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c5">12.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r36" headers="r11 c1">Unknown or missing data</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c2">6.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c3">1.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c4">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c5">1.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="5">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="5">NOTE: Rounded percentages do not necessarily sum to totals.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>The composition of the caseload differed across the three study cohorts, which might partly reflect changes in the medical community's use of certain diagnoses over time, such as the increase in autism diagnoses (Shattuck 2006). Compared with the 1997 cohort, the later cohorts included increasing shares of first-time child awardees diagnosed with autistic disorders, developmental disorders, and childhood and adolescent disorders not elsewhere classified. However, from 1997 to 2017, the percentage of first-time child awardees diagnosed with intellectual disability fell by nearly 80 percent, from 26.5 percent to 6.3 percent. The percentages of children with other primary diagnoses remained fairly stable over this period. In addition, the share of first-time child awardees who are male increased slightly, from 61.6 percent to 65.5 percent. In all four cohorts, about <span class="nobr">two-thirds</span> of the first-time child awardees were younger than 8 at the time of award.</p>
|
|
<p>To track the duration and dollar amounts of benefits received for each cohort, we used the definitions for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>, <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>, and “any disability benefit” used in Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies (2015). This means we report the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits actually received by each person in a given month, rather than the amount due, which may vary based on factors that only become known several months or years later. Although we present findings for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>, <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>, and combined <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> (any disability benefit), our analysis focuses on <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments. Because our statistics represent the full population of first-time child awardees, we do not present standard errors or significance tests in our descriptive comparisons.</p>
|
|
<p>Within each cohort, we examine whether benefit durations and amounts differ by demographic characteristics and impairment. This helps us understand whether differences in the size and <span class="nobr">make-up</span> of cohorts shown in Table 1 contributed to the aggregate patterns of benefit receipt. Besides providing descriptive statistics, we also estimate regressions that control for the composition of the caseload, as described in our Results section. The dependent variable is either duration of stay or total payment amount, and the independent variables are the demographic and impairment characteristics in Table 1. In addition, we include cohort-specific dummies that account for differences across cohorts after controlling for demographics and impairments.</p>
|
|
<p><span class="nobr">Age-18</span> redeterminations and <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s can also play an important role in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt. Because the redetermination applies only to those who have reached age 18, we split our sample by age. We refer to those who reached 18 within 10 years of benefit award as “older” child recipients, which includes anyone who was aged 8 or older at the time of award, and we refer to those who did not reach age 18 within 10 years of benefit award as “younger” child recipients (aged <span class="nobr">0–7</span> at award). About <span class="nobr">two-thirds</span> of both cohorts for which we have 10 years of follow-up data are younger awardees (Chart 3).</p>
|
|
<div class="svgChart chart320" id="chart3"> <img src="v81n2p17-chart03.svg" role="img" alt="Chart 3. Percentage distribution of S S I child awardees, by age group: 1997 and 2007 award cohorts. In the 1997 cohort (111,542 awardees), 65% were younger (aged 0 through 7) and 35% were older (aged 8 through 17). In the 2007 cohort (158,534 awardees), 64% were younger and 36% were older. SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative data from S S A."> </div>
|
|
<p>We stratify the program-stay and benefit-amount trajectories by the result of the low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> for younger children and by the result of the <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination for older youths. We further divide both the younger and older groups into three subgroups, defined by their status as of the end of the observation period:</p>
|
|
<ol>
|
|
<li>Youths who did not have a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> or an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination because, respectively, low birth weight was not a factor in their award or they left <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> before age 18.</li>
|
|
<li>Youths whose payments continued after the low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> or <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination.</li>
|
|
<li>Youths whose payments ceased because of the low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> or <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination.</li>
|
|
</ol>
|
|
<p>We define the result of a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> or an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination as the final decision after all levels of appeal were completed. We use data from the Office of Continuing Disability Review Support in <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s Office of Operations to categorize youths into each redetermination-status subgroup.</p>
|
|
<h2>Results</h2>
|
|
<p>In this section, we present results related to duration of payments and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment amounts. </p>
|
|
<h3>2007 and 2012 Cohorts Had Longer Benefit Duration Than 1997 Cohort</h3>
|
|
<p>Members of the 1997 cohort received <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments for a shorter time and had lower total payment amounts in the 5 years after first award than the members of the later cohorts (Table 2). In the 1997 cohort, the average duration of payments among all first-time child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees was 44.7 months, about 5 months shorter than that of the 2007 cohort (50.1 months) and the 2012 cohort (48.9 months). Similarly, the average cumulative <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment amounts were more than $2,000 lower for members of the 1997 cohort than for those in the 2007 and 2012 cohorts ($31,911 versus $34,773 and $34,156, respectively). This relationship did not change when we added <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits to account for all disability-program benefits paid (only a small share of each cohort also receives <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits).</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table2">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 2. </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program benefit durations and amounts for child awardees in the 5 years and 10 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award, by award cohort and program</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:12em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="9" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c4">2012</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c3">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c10" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c11" headers="c4">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c12" headers="c4"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c13" headers="c4"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r1" headers="c1">Sample size</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 c2">111,542</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 c3">158,534</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 c4">180,190</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="panel" id="r2">5 years after award</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r3" headers="r2 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c5">45.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c6">44.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c7">3.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c8">51.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c9">50.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c10">4.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c4 c11">49.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c4 c12">48.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c4 c13">3.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r4" headers="r2 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c5">33,109</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c6">31,911</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c7">1,198</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c8">36,040</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c9">34,773</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c10">1,267</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c4 c11">35,278</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c4 c12">34,156</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c4 c13">1,122</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="panel" id="r5">10 years after award</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r6" headers="r5 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c2 c5">78.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c2 c6">74.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c2 c7">8.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c3 c8">88.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c3 c9">85.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c3 c10">9.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c4 c11">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r7" headers="r5 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r7 c2 c5">54,811</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r7 c2 c6">51,397</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r7 c2 c7">3,414</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r7 c3 c8">61,633</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r7 c3 c9">58,111</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r7 c3 c10">3,522</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r7 c4 c11">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r7 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r7 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="10">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative data from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="10">NOTES: Benefit amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.
|
|
<div class="newNote">. . . = not applicable.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>The 2007 and 2012 cohorts have similar program stays and cumulative payment amounts, particularly when contrasted with the 1997 cohort, suggesting that the Great Recession did not meaningfully affect patterns of longer-term payment receipt by cohort.<sup><a href="#mn8" id="mt8">8</a></sup> Thus, for brevity, the rest of this section focuses on the comparison between the 1997 and 2007 cohorts 10 years after the initial award. For completeness, the <a href="#appendix">appendix</a> presents tabulations showing analogous results for 5 years after award for all three cohorts.</p>
|
|
<p>After 10 years, the relative and aggregate differences in payment durations and amounts between the 1997 and 2007 cohorts increased (Table 2). <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment duration was 10.5 months shorter for members of the 1997 cohort than for those in the 2007 cohort (74.8 months versus 85.3 months). Furthermore, <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment amounts were $6,714 lower for youths in the 1997 cohort than for those in the 2007 cohort ($51,397 versus $58,111). These differences underscore the importance of examining <span class="nobr">long-term</span> outcomes, given the lengthy program stays of child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients.<sup><a href="#mn9" id="mt9">9</a></sup> For example, if the 158,534 awardees in the 2007 cohort had the same <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment durations that those in the 1997 cohort did, the total payments over that period would have been about $1 billion lower (158,534 × $6,714).</p>
|
|
<p>The following subsections explore possible reasons for the differences in payment amounts received between cohorts. First, we assess whether the different composition of the cohorts, shown in <a href="#table1">Table 1</a>, is an important factor. Next, we explore whether the youths in the 1997 cohort were more likely to exit the program before reaching age 18. Finally, we explore the narrower question of whether differences in <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> frequency played a role in the prevalence of youths leaving the program before age 18.</p>
|
|
<h3>Differences in Payments Received Are Consistent for All Demographics and Impairments</h3>
|
|
<p>One potential driver of the differences in cumulative per-recipient payments received between cohorts is the differing case mix. As shown in <a href="#table1">Table 1</a>, the cohorts vary considerably in their demographic and impairment characteristics. Below, we document descriptive patterns for these characteristics then use a regression model to explore whether observable differences in cohort composition can explain the variances in program stays and payment amounts.</p>
|
|
<p>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment durations are longer and the amounts received are higher for youths in the 2007 cohort than for those in the 1997 cohort across all age, sex, and impairment subgroups (Table 3). This finding indicates a categorical shift upward in program stays across all groups.<sup><a href="#mn10" id="mt10">10</a></sup> By contrast, there are no notable differences between the 2007 and 2012 cohorts in average duration or cumulative payments by age, sex, or impairment in the <span class="nobr">5-year</span> postaward period available for comparison (<a href="#tableA1">Appendix Table <span class="nobr">A-1</span></a>).</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table3">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 3. </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment durations and amounts for child awardees in the 10 years after first award, by sex, age, and impairment: 1997 and 2007 award cohorts</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:31em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="4" style="width:7em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c4" headers="c2">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c3">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c3">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub3" id="r1" headers="c1">All recipients</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c2 c4">74.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c2 c5">51,397</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c3 c6">85.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c3 c7">58,111</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="c1">Sex</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r3" headers="r2 c1">Female</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c4">72.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c5">49,846</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c6">82.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c7">55,916</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r4" headers="r2 c1">Male</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c4">76.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c5">52,364</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c6">87.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c7">59,310</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r5" headers="c1">Age</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r5 c1">Younger than 8</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c2 c4">73.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c2 c5">49,876</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c3 c6">86.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c3 c7">58,201</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r7" headers="r5 r6 c1">Low birth weight, younger than 1</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c2 c4">30.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c2 c5">19,229</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c3 c6">35.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c3 c7">21,224</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r8" headers="r5 r6 c1">Other</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c2 c4">80.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c2 c5">55,027</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c3 c6">95.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c3 c7">64,812</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r9" headers="r5 c1"><span class="nobr">8–12</span></th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c2 c4">83.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c2 c5">58,298</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c3 c6">91.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c3 c7">62,613</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r10" headers="r5 c1"><span class="nobr">13–17</span></th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c2 c4">69.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c2 c5">48,174</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c3 c6">73.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c3 c7">50,966</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r11" headers="c1">Impairment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r11 c1">Congenital anomalies</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c2 c4">67.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c2 c5">44,114</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c3 c6">81.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c3 c7">53,893</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r13" headers="r11 c1">Endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c2 c4">72.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c2 c5">49,965</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c3 c6">80.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c3 c7">55,546</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r14" headers="r11 c1">Infectious and parasitic diseases</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c2 c4">80.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c2 c5">56,001</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c3 c6">85.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c3 c7">58,042</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r15" headers="r11 c1">Injuries</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c2 c4">73.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c2 c5">48,123</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c3 c6">83.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c3 c7">55,915</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r16" headers="r11 c1">Mental impairments</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r17" headers="r11 r16 c1">Autistic disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c2 c4">87.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c2 c5">56,488</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c3 c6">98.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c3 c7">64,539</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r18" headers="r11 r16 c1">Developmental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c2 c4">82.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c2 c5">57,375</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c3 c6">93.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c3 c7">64,367</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r19" headers="r11 r16 c1">Childhood and adolescent disorders not elsewhere classified</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c2 c4">79.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c2 c5">56,275</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c3 c6">89.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c3 c7">62,238</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r20" headers="r11 r16 c1">Intellectual disability</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c2 c4">92.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c2 c5">63,906</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c3 c6">103.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c3 c7">71,036</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r21" headers="r11 r16 c1">Mood disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c2 c4">75.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c2 c5">53,018</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c3 c6">81.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c3 c7">56,662</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r22" headers="r11 r16 c1">Organic mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c2 c4">85.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c2 c5">58,538</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c3 c6">94.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c3 c7">64,304</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r23" headers="r11 r16 c1">Schizophrenic and other psychotic disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c2 c4">87.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c2 c5">60,418</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c3 c6">94.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c3 c7">65,056</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r24" headers="r11 r16 c1">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c2 c4">84.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c2 c5">60,039</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c3 c6">92.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c3 c7">64,353</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r25" headers="r11 c1">Neoplasms</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c2 c4">39.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c2 c5">25,902</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c3 c6">55.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c3 c7">36,536</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r26" headers="r11 c1">Diseases <span class="nobr">of the—</span></th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r27" headers="r11 r26 c1">Blood and blood-forming organs</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c2 c4">86.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c2 c5">59,301</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c3 c6">97.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c3 c7">66,773</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r28" headers="r11 r26 c1">Circulatory system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c2 c4">61.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c2 c5">41,500</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c3 c6">73.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c3 c7">48,857</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r29" headers="r11 r26 c1">Digestive system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c2 c4">60.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c2 c5">41,520</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c3 c6">70.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c3 c7">46,747</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r30" headers="r11 r26 c1">Genitourinary system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c2 c4">74.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c2 c5">50,212</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c3 c6">82.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c3 c7">55,993</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r31" headers="r11 r26 c1">Musculoskeletal system and connective tissue</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c2 c4">75.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c2 c5">52,164</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c3 c6">88.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c3 c7">62,184</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r32" headers="r11 r26 c1">Nervous system and sense organs</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c2 c4">83.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c2 c5">55,405</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c3 c6">93.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c3 c7">62,466</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r33" headers="r11 r26 c1">Respiratory system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c2 c4">65.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c2 c5">46,809</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c3 c6">82.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c3 c7">58,958</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r34" headers="r11 r26 c1">Skin and subcutaneous tissue</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c2 c4">72.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c2 c5">50,952</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c3 c6">88.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c3 c7">62,909</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r35" headers="r11 c1">Other</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c2 c4">39.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c2 c5">25,543</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c3 c6">42.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c3 c7">26,817</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r36" headers="r11 c1">Unknown or missing data</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c2 c4">59.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c2 c5">44,184</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c3 c6">71.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c3 c7">49,569</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="5">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="5">NOTES: Includes recipients of concurrent <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits.
|
|
<div class="newNote">Payment amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>In Table 3, for both the 1997 and 2007 cohorts, payment receipt patterns differ dramatically by age. Recipients who were younger than age 1 at the time of award have shorter mean durations and lower total payment amounts than awardees of other ages, likely because low birth weight recipients are generally subject to a special <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> by age 1. Youths first awarded at ages 13 to 17 also have relatively shorter program stays, likely because they are subject to an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination relatively sooner after award. Below, we discuss the possible effect of these redeterminations and additional <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s on the differences in payment receipt between cohorts.</p>
|
|
<p>Comparing results by impairment, mean <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment durations and amounts for 1997 awardees were highest for those with intellectual disabilities (92.5 months and $63,906) and autistic disorders (87.8 months and $56,488). Other impairments with notably long durations include schizophrenic and other psychotic disorders, diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs, and organic mental disorders. The categories with notably shorter durations include neoplasms and “other” impairments.</p>
|
|
<p>Even after controlling for variation in cohorts' characteristics, our regression results indicate differences between cohorts in mean length of benefit receipt and mean cumulative amounts received (Table 4).<sup><a href="#mn11" id="mt11">11</a></sup> The regression-adjusted differences between cohorts are similar to the unadjusted descriptive statistics; after 10 years, the 2007 cohort had received <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments for about 10.6 months longer than the 1997 cohort amounting to $6,869 more received. Differences in <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> receipt were small.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table4">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 4. </span>Regression-adjusted <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program mean benefit duration and amount in the 10 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award: How the 2007 child award cohort differs from the 1997 cohort, by program</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:12em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:7em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:7em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:7em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" scope="colgroup">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th scope="col">Coefficient</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Coefficient</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Coefficient</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td>10.32***</td>
|
|
<td>0.14</td>
|
|
<td>10.58***</td>
|
|
<td>0.15</td>
|
|
<td>0.86***</td>
|
|
<td>0.11</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td>6,953***</td>
|
|
<td>112</td>
|
|
<td>6,869***</td>
|
|
<td>113</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">83</td>
|
|
<td>52</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="7">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="7">NOTES: Benefit amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.
|
|
<div class="newNote">* = statistically significant at the 10 percent level; ** = statistically significant at the 5 percent level; *** = statistically significant at the 1 percent level; two-tailed tests.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>The similarity between the regression-adjusted differences and the descriptive statistics suggests that the case mix did not strongly affect the aggregate differences in payment receipt.<sup><a href="#mn12" id="mt12">12</a></sup> This means that something other than differences in recipient characteristics drives the differences in payment receipt over time. We next explore patterns by age, focusing on the role that the low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s and <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations may play.</p>
|
|
<h3>Longer Periods of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Receipt Among Younger Child Awardees Drive Cohort Differences</h3>
|
|
<p>Younger awardees in the 2007 cohort had persistently longer program stays than their peers in the 1997 cohort, regardless of whether they had a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> (Chart 4, Panel A). For younger awardees who were not subject to a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>, <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment duration was 15 percent longer for members of the 2007 cohort than for the 1997 cohort (87.6 months versus 76.2 months). Because younger awardees did not reach age 18 within 10 years of award, those who left <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> must have done so independent of an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination. Most of the younger awardees in both cohorts were not subject to a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> (86.1 percent in 1997 and 86.6 percent in 2007; Table 5). For younger awardees whose low birth weight factored into program entry, we also find patterns of longer participation for the 2007 cohort than for the 1997 cohort.<sup><a href="#mn13" id="mt13">13</a></sup></p>
|
|
<div class="svgChart chart960" id="chart4"> <img src="v81n2p17-chart04.svg" role="img" alt="Chart 4. Mean S S I payment durations in the 10 years after first award, by age group and selected medical review status: 1997 and 2007 award cohorts. Two bar charts with tabular version below.">
|
|
<div class="table altTable"> <a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 4. </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment durations in the 10 years after first award, by age group and selected medical review status: 1997 and 2007 award cohorts</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:20em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Status</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">1997 cohort</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2007 cohort</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="panel" scope="rowgroup">Panel A: Younger awardees (aged <span class="nobr">0–7</span> at award)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">All younger child awardees</th>
|
|
<td>73.2</td>
|
|
<td>85.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Award was not based on low birth weight</th>
|
|
<td>76.2</td>
|
|
<td>87.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Underwent a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> and enrollment continued</th>
|
|
<td>85.2</td>
|
|
<td>105.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Underwent a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> and enrollment ceased</th>
|
|
<td>25.8</td>
|
|
<td>51.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="panel" scope="rowgroup">Panel B: Older awardees (aged <span class="nobr">8–17</span> at award)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">All older child awardees</th>
|
|
<td>77.8</td>
|
|
<td>84.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Enrollment ceased before age 18</th>
|
|
<td>58.4</td>
|
|
<td>68.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Underwent an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination and enrollment continued</th>
|
|
<td>108.5</td>
|
|
<td>110.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Underwent an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination and enrollment ceased</th>
|
|
<td>70.5</td>
|
|
<td>76.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="3">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative data from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="3">NOTE: <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> and redetermination outcomes are after completion of all appeals.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table5">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 5. </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program benefit durations and amounts for younger child awardees (aged <span class="nobr">0–7)</span> in the 10 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award, and percentage of the period on the program rolls: By program, 1997 and 2007 award cohorts</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:19em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="6" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c4" headers="c2">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c3">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="panel" id="r1">All younger child awardees</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="r1 c1">Sample size</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c2">72,274</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c3">100,539</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r3" headers="r1 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c2">100.0</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c3">100.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r4" headers="r1 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r5" headers="r1 r4 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c4">76.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c5">73.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c6">6.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c7">89.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c8">85.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c9">8.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r1 r4 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c4">63.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c5">61.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c6">5.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c7">74.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c8">71.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c9">6.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r7" headers="r1 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c4">52,268</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c5">49,817</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c6">2,451</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c7">60,921</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c8">58,155</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c9">2,766</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="panel" id="r8">Award was not based on low birth weight</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r9" headers="r8 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c2">86.1</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c3">86.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r10" headers="r8 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r11" headers="r8 r10 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c4">79.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c5">76.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c6">7.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c7">90.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c8">87.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c9">8.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r8 r10 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c4">66.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c5">63.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c6">5.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c7">75.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c8">73.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c9">7.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r13" headers="r8 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c4">54,491</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c5">51,937</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c6">2,554</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c7">62,359</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c8">59,417</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c9">2,942</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="panelWithSub" id="r14">Underwent a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="subWithPanel" id="r15" headers="r14">Enrollment continued</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r16" headers="r14 r15 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c2">6.8</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c3">5.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r17" headers="r14 r15 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r18" headers="r14 r15 r17 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c4">87.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c5">85.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c6">4.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c7">107.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c8">105.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c9">5.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r19" headers="r14 r15 r17 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c4">72.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c5">71.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c6">4.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c7">89.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c8">88.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c9">4.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r20" headers="r14 r15 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c4">58,166</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c5">56,459</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c6">1,706</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c7">72,680</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c8">70,980</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c9">1,700</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="subpanel" id="r21" headers="r14">Enrollment ceased</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r22" headers="r14 r21 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c2">7.0</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c3">7.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r23" headers="r14 r21 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r24" headers="r14 r21 r23 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c4">30.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c5">25.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c6">4.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c7">54.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c8">51.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c9">4.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r25" headers="r14 r21 r23 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c4">25.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c5">21.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c6">4.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c7">45.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c8">42.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c9">3.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r26" headers="r14 r21 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c4">19,334</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c5">17,425</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c6">1,909</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c7">35,384</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c8">33,809</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c9">1,575</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="7">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="7">NOTES: <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> outcomes are after completion of all appeals.
|
|
<div class="newNote">Benefit amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">Rounded components of percentage distributions do not necessarily sum to 100.0.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>The patterns for older child awardees also suggest that <span class="nobr">long-term</span> differences in payment receipt center on youths who leave the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> rolls before reaching age 18 (Chart 4, Panel B). Among those who left <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> before turning 18, the 2007 cohort received payments for 68.7 months on average, about 18 percent longer than did the 1997 cohort (58.4 months). However, among the older youths who had an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination, the differences between the 1997 and 2007 award cohorts in the duration of payments were much smaller. For example, among the awardees who continued receiving payments after age 18, mean <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> duration for the 2007 cohort was only 2 percent longer than that of the 1997 cohort (110.8 months versus 108.5 months). Therefore, a key factor in the aggregate differences between cohorts is that youths who left the program tended to do so more quickly if they were in the 1997 award cohort.</p>
|
|
<p>Further underlying the difference between the cohorts is that a larger share of older youths in the 1997 cohort left <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> before age 18 (46.8 percent) than did so in the 2007 cohort (37.5 percent; Table 6). In comparison, the share of first-time awardees whose payments ceased as the result of an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination, after all appeals, was more than 1.5 times higher in the 2007 cohort than in the 1997 cohort, 31.7 percent versus 19.1 percent.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table6">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 6. </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program benefit durations and amounts for older child awardees (aged <span class="nobr">8–17)</span> in the 10 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award, and percentage of the period on the program rolls: By program, 1997 and 2007 award cohorts</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:19em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="6" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c4" headers="c2">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c3">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="panel" id="r1">All older child awardees</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="r1 c1">Sample size</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c2">39,268</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c3"><sup>a</sup> 57,991</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r3" headers="r1 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c2">100.0</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c3">100.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r4" headers="r1 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r5" headers="r1 r4 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c4">82.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c5">77.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c6">11.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c7">87.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c8">84.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c9">12.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r1 r4 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c4">68.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c5">64.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c6">9.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c7">73.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c8">70.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c9">10.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r7" headers="r1 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c4">59,492</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c5">54,305</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c6">5,187</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c7">62,866</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c8">58,035</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c9">4,832</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="panel" id="r8">Enrollment ceased before age 18</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r9" headers="r8 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c2">46.8</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c3">37.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r10" headers="r8 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r11" headers="r8 r10 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c4">65.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c5">58.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c6">12.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c7">76.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c8">68.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c9">14.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r8 r10 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c4">54.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c5">48.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c6">10.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c7">63.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c8">57.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c9">12.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r13" headers="r8 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c4">47,323</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c5">41,110</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c6">6,213</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c7">53,842</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c8">46,888</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c9">6,954</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="panelWithSub" id="r14">Underwent an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="subWithPanel" id="r15" headers="r14">Enrollment continued</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r16" headers="r14 r15 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c2">34.2</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c3">30.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r17" headers="r14 r15 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r18" headers="r14 r15 r17 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c4">110.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c5">108.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c6">12.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c7">112.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c8">110.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c9">14</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r19" headers="r14 r15 r17 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c4">92.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c5">90.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c6">10.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c7">94.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c8">92.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c9">11.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r20" headers="r14 r15 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c4">78,964</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c5">73,786</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c6">5,178</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c7">80,234</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c8">74,996</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c9">5,239</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="6" class="subpanel" id="r21" headers="r14">Enrollment ceased</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r22" headers="r14 r21 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c2">19.1</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c3">31.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r23" headers="r14 r21 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r24" headers="r14 r21 r23 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c4">71.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c5">70.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c6">7.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c7">77.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c8">76.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c9">7.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r25" headers="r14 r21 r23 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c4">59.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c5">58.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c6">6.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c7">64.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c8">63.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c9">5.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r26" headers="r14 r21 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c4">54,455</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c5">51,767</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c6">2,688</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c7">56,659</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c8">54,729</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c9">1,930</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="7">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="7">NOTES: Redetermination outcomes are after completion of all appeals.
|
|
<div class="newNote">Benefit amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">Rounded components of percentage distributions do not necessarily sum to 100.0.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="7">a. Excludes four cohort members who had an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination appeal pending at the time we conducted the analysis.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>Taken together, these results indicate that the differences between cohorts in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt stem mostly from differences in outcomes that occur before reaching age 18. Youths in the 1997 cohort were more likely to leave the rolls—and to leave more quickly—than were those in the 2007 cohort.<sup><a href="#mn14" id="mt14">14</a></sup> One reason youths leave the rolls is because of child <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s; administrative patterns discussed earlier suggest that <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s were more likely to be initiated for youths in the 1997 cohort than for those in the 2007 cohort. We next explore the effect of those <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s.</p>
|
|
<h3>Timing and Quantity of Other Childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s Play Major Roles in Program Stays</h3>
|
|
<p>The frequency and timing of other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s (those not related to low birth weight) strongly affect the broad patterns of program payment duration and amounts received over time. For example, a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> resulting in cessation could occur in the first year after an award for a recipient in one award cohort, and not until 5 years after award for a recipient with a similar impairment in another cohort. Because these differences compound over time, both the timing and the quantity of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s have important implications for payment duration, as the comparisons between the 1997 and 2007 cohorts illustrate.</p>
|
|
<p>We estimate that <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s account for about half of the overall difference in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment duration between the 1997 and 2007 cohorts. To generate this estimate, we first calculated the cumulative percentage of youths in each cohort whose payments ceased after a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> in the 10 years following the initial award; the results appear in Chart 5.<sup><a href="#mn15" id="mt15">15</a></sup> Similar shares (around 11 or 12 percent) of both the 1997 and 2007 cohorts had had their payments ceased after a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> by the end of the period, but a much greater share of the cessations occurred earlier for the 1997 cohort. The cessation rate from a child <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> in the first 5 years was more than four times greater for the 1997 cohort than for the 2007 cohort (9.9 percent versus 2.3 percent). These large cessation-rate differences reflect changes over time in the frequency with which <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> conducts other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s, as discussed earlier.</p>
|
|
<div class="svgChart chart700" id="chart5"> <img src="v81n2p17-chart05.svg" role="img" alt="Chart 5. Child S S I recipients with payments ceased because of a C D R within 10 years of award: Cumulative percentages by year, 1997 and 2007 award cohorts. Line chart with tabular version below.">
|
|
<div class="table altTable"> <a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 5. </span>Child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients with payments ceased because of a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> within 10 years of award: Cumulative percentages by year, 1997 and 2007 award cohorts</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:12em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Years since award</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">1997 cohort</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2007 cohort</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1</th>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2</th>
|
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<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">3</th>
|
|
<td>5.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.2</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">4</th>
|
|
<td>8.1</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">5</th>
|
|
<td>9.9</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">6</th>
|
|
<td>10.9</td>
|
|
<td>3.5</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">7</th>
|
|
<td>11.6</td>
|
|
<td>5.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">8</th>
|
|
<td>11.9</td>
|
|
<td>7.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">9</th>
|
|
<td>12.1</td>
|
|
<td>9.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">10</th>
|
|
<td>12.1</td>
|
|
<td>10.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
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</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="onlyNote" colspan="3">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative data from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
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</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
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</div>
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</div>
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|
<p>Greater cessation rates, particularly in the first years after award, have direct implications for some of the differences between the 1997 and 2007 cohorts in payment duration shown in the preceding tables. To estimate the potential magnitude of these differences, we simulate for each cohort the duration of potential payment receipt that a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessation negates (Chart 6). For example, if <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> ceased a recipient's payments in year 1, we assume that he or she lost 9 potential years of additional payments.<sup><a href="#mn16" id="mt16">16</a></sup> This assumption represents an upper bound on potential payment durations, although it is a credible estimate given the long durations shown in <a href="#chart4">Chart 4</a>. Additionally, Hemmeter and Bailey (2015) found that less than 10 percent of children whose participation ceased as the result of a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> returned to the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> rolls before age 18, which suggests that reenrollments would not substantially reduce that upper bound.</p>
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|
<div class="svgChart chart700" id="chart6"> <img src="v81n2p17-chart06.svg" role="img" alt="Chart 6. Mean number of months of potential S S I receipt negated by a child C D R cessation decision, by timing of the C D R: 1997 and 2007 award cohorts. Bar chart with tabular version below.">
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<div class="table altTable"> <a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
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<table>
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 6. </span>Mean number of months of potential <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt negated by a child <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessation decision, by timing of the <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>: 1997 and 2007 award cohorts</caption>
|
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
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|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
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<thead>
|
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Years since award</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">1997 cohort</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2007 cohort</th>
|
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">1</th>
|
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<td>0.9</td>
|
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<td>(L)</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">2</th>
|
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<td>1.5</td>
|
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<td>(L)</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">3</th>
|
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<td>2.6</td>
|
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<td>0.2</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">4</th>
|
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<td>1.9</td>
|
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<td>0.7</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">5</th>
|
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<td>1.1</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">6</th>
|
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<td>0.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">7</th>
|
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<td>0.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">8</th>
|
|
<td>0.1</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">9</th>
|
|
<td>(L)</td>
|
|
<td>0.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">10</th>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="3">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative data from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="3">NOTES: Chart illustrates the effect of the different timing of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s for the two <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child award cohorts by plotting mean additional months of hypothetical payments the child would have received had the <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> not taken place.</td>
|
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</tr>
|
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<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="3">(L) = less than 0.05.</td>
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</tr>
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</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
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</div>
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<p>If the 1997 cohort had experienced the same lower cessation rate that the 2007 cohort did, their average payment duration would have increased substantially. Specifically, over the full <span class="nobr">10-year</span> period, the higher rates of early <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessations for those in the 1997 cohort might have reduced their average potential payment durations by almost 5.2 months.<sup><a href="#mn17" id="mt17">17</a></sup> This potential <span class="nobr">5.2-month</span> increase would explain half of the <span class="nobr">10.5-month</span> difference between the 1997 and 2007 cohorts in mean <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment duration (Table 2).<sup><a href="#mn18" id="mt18">18</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>Our analysis shows that the timing of the cessations differed between the cohorts. For example, cessations in the first 3 years after award were substantially higher for the 1997 cohort than the 2007 cohort. The initial <span class="nobr">3-year</span> periods contribute the most to the estimated difference between the two cohorts. These differences persist despite the narrowing of the gap in cessation rates between the two cohorts in years 7 through 10. We estimate that the cumulative difference between the cohorts in payment amounts resulting from <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessations might have been more than $400 million over a <span class="nobr">10-year</span> period.<sup><a href="#mn19" id="mt19">19</a></sup></p>
|
|
<h3>Later Cohorts Had Higher <span class="nobr">Age-18</span> Redetermination Cessation Rates</h3>
|
|
<p>Differences in payment receipt and <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessations could have important implications for <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination volumes and outcomes. Specifically, in the 2007 and 2012 cohorts, payment durations before age 18 increased, and fewer recipients underwent childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s; this led to compositional changes for the group that undergoes an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination. These changes are reflected in a higher redetermination cessation rate among older youths in the 2007 cohort (50 percent) than in the 1997 cohort (about 35 percent; not shown). However, the difference between cohorts may be an upper bound; some members of the 2007 cohort may eventually have a cessation overturned on appeal.<sup><a href="#mn20" id="mt20">20</a></sup> This difference is consistent with previous research finding that youths without a childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> are more likely to have payments ceased during the <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination, and those whose payments are ceased in a redetermination are more likely to return to the program within 10 years (Hemmeter and Bailey 2015).</p>
|
|
<p>The recent pattern of higher cessations resulting from <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations is consistent with broader trends revealed in administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. Because the number of other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s was sharply lower during the period from fiscal year 2005 to fiscal year 2013 (<a href="#chart1">Chart 1</a>), youths reaching age 18 in the early 2010s were less likely to have been subject to a child <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> than those reaching age 18 in the early 2000s had been. Among youths reaching age 18 in the early 2010s, those who had the least severe disabilities—who might have been removed from the rolls if they had undergone a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>—would therefore reach age 18 still enrolled. Consistent with this trend, the cessation rate for <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations was much higher in the early 2010s than the early 2000s (<a href="#chart2">Chart 2</a>). Future research could explore whether patterns in the timing and frequency of redeterminations and <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s (1) only affect the timing of removal for recipients who would otherwise have their payments ceased by age 18 or (2) actually change who is removed from the rolls, which would have longer-term implications for payment receipt.</p>
|
|
<h3>Robustness Check</h3>
|
|
<p>We tested whether choosing 1997 as the year to start the analysis drove the observed changes over the study period. We sought to provide a degree of consistency with other research such as Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies (2015). Because 1997 was the first full year following landmark welfare-reform legislation, which included mandating the <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination, its awardee cohort may differ from subsequent cohorts in ways that affect outcomes. Additionally, the 1997 cohort was notably smaller than subsequent cohorts. Comparing the 1997 cohort to later cohorts might therefore lead to misinterpretations of observed changes.</p>
|
|
<p>Table 7 shows <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment mean durations and cumulative amounts in the 5 years and the 10 years after first award for not only our study cohorts but also the 1999, 2000, 2001, and 2003 cohorts. Payment durations and payment amounts in the 10 years after award increased consistently between the 1997 and 2003 cohorts, indicating that our primary findings are not an artifact of the choice of 1997 as the base-cohort year. Each successive cohort saw continued growth in the number of new <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients, program stays, and payment amounts. We see similar growth in the <span class="nobr">5-year</span> statistics for those cohorts as well as the 2010 cohort. Payment durations and amounts increased between the late 1990s cohorts to early 2010s cohorts. We therefore believe the intrinsic effects of our chosen starting year are minimal.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table7">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 7. </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment durations and amounts for child awardees in the 5 years and 10 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award: Selected award cohorts <span class="nobr">1997–2012</span></caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:12em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="8" style="width:6em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">1997</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">1999</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2000</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2001</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2003</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2007</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2010</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2012</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Sample size</th>
|
|
<td>111,542</td>
|
|
<td>132,200</td>
|
|
<td>133,934</td>
|
|
<td>144,831</td>
|
|
<td>166,088</td>
|
|
<td>158,534</td>
|
|
<td>192,741</td>
|
|
<td>180,190</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th class="panel" colspan="8" scope="rowgroup">5 years after award</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td>44.7</td>
|
|
<td>46.2</td>
|
|
<td>46.9</td>
|
|
<td>47.5</td>
|
|
<td>49.4</td>
|
|
<td>50.1</td>
|
|
<td>49.9</td>
|
|
<td>48.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td>31,911</td>
|
|
<td>32,783</td>
|
|
<td>32,675</td>
|
|
<td>33,020</td>
|
|
<td>34,003</td>
|
|
<td>34,773</td>
|
|
<td>35,192</td>
|
|
<td>34,156</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th class="panel" colspan="8" scope="rowgroup">10 years after award</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td>74.8</td>
|
|
<td>78.6</td>
|
|
<td>80.2</td>
|
|
<td>81.8</td>
|
|
<td>86.5</td>
|
|
<td>85.3</td>
|
|
<td><span class="nobr">--</span></td>
|
|
<td>. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td>51,397</td>
|
|
<td>53,795</td>
|
|
<td>54,525</td>
|
|
<td>55,612</td>
|
|
<td>58,547</td>
|
|
<td>58,111</td>
|
|
<td><span class="nobr">--</span></td>
|
|
<td>. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="9">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="9">NOTES: Payment amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>-adjusted 2017 dollars.
|
|
<div class="newNote"><span class="nobr">--</span> = not available; . . . = not applicable.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<h2>Discussion</h2>
|
|
<p>We find evidence that <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program stays among children are generally longer for more recent award cohorts (2007 and 2012) than for the 1997 cohort. Although the cohorts in our study differed in terms of their demographic and impairment characteristics, our regression results suggest that controlling for these factors does not affect the basic patterns of payment durations. The increase in length of payment receipt for recent cohorts coincided with increases in the size of the child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> caseload.</p>
|
|
<p>We estimate that if the 2007 cohort had had the same mean payment duration as the 1997 cohort, the accumulated <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> amounts paid over 10 years would have been about $1 billion lower. Whether the amounts to be paid in the coming decade to members of the 2007 award cohort will be larger by similar proportions than the amounts paid to the 1997 cohort remains to be seen. For recipients whose participation continued after an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination, the duration of payment receipt was nearly identical between the two cohorts. This implies that the $1 billion amount noted above might not expand further.</p>
|
|
<p>Although the duration of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt lengthened over the study period, the recent increase in childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s might shorten program stays for future <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award cohorts. We find evidence that ongoing <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s play a key role in payment duration, possibly explaining about half of the difference in mean duration between the 1997 and 2007 cohorts. Because the frequency of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s rose sharply between fiscal years 2015 and 2018 (<a href="#chart1">Chart 1</a>), the trend of increasing mean durations may reverse. Additionally, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s proposal to create a new “Medical Improvement Likely” category for disability program participants could, if implemented, increase the frequency of medical <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s for some <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients.</p>
|
|
<p>Mean program stays for future <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award cohorts might therefore differ from those of the 2007 and 2012 cohorts, particularly because of the large surge in childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s beginning in fiscal year 2015. Although the major driver of the longer payment durations for the 2007 and 2012 award cohorts was the relatively low number of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> conducted during fiscal years <span class="nobr">2006–2014,</span> other factors (such as the shifting geography of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients and the economy) might also have contributed to these trends.<sup><a href="#mn21" id="mt21">21</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>The fluctuations in <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> policy might also affect the number of <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations. Because Congress has authorized and funded <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> to conduct more child <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s in recent years, the size and composition of future caseloads subject to <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations may change. Hence, it is important to understand how <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> timing and frequency ultimately affect continuation and cessation rates for <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations, particularly when tracking program outcomes. For example, although the cessation rate for <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations increased through fiscal year 2015, the trend began to reverse in more recent years, and this reversal might continue as discretionary <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s conducted before age 18 increase; some youths whose participation might have continued until cessation at age 18 could instead be removed from the rolls earlier. It is possible that <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s proposed changes—including revising the <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> diary types, requiring a medical review after 2 years on the rolls, and mandating reviews at ages 6 and 12—will, if implemented, accelerate any changes in observed patterns of program participation at age 18.</p>
|
|
<p>This article cannot address how changes to patterns of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt affect youth outcomes. Earlier research indicates that the income sources of former <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients tend to be unstable after the cessation of program payments (Deshpande 2016; Hemmeter, Kauff, and Wittenburg 2009; Hemmeter 2011). Given the large fluctuations in program stays, it is especially important to understand how well families are prepared for <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s and the <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination and, for those whose participation ceases, how able they are to replace the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment.</p>
|
|
<p>For youths who exit <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> following a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> or redetermination, outcomes—such as employment or connections to other programs—are an important consideration. Additional research looking into the efficiency of <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s in identifying youths who can engage in substantial gainful activity, and whether observed patterns change, could reveal ways to serve youths as they leave <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s fiscal year 2021 budget proposes a project identifying the services and supports needed to improve the self-sufficiency of individuals who exit <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> because of a medical <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>. Evidence from that study might also provide suggestions about the needs of former child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients.</p>
|
|
<h2 id="appendix">Appendix A</h2>
|
|
<div class="table" id="tableA1">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table <span class="nobr">A-1.</span> </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment durations and amounts for child awardees in the 5 years after first award, by sex, age, and impairment: 1997, 2007, and 2012 award cohorts</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:33em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="6" style="width:6.5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c4">2012</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c3">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c3">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c4">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<th id="c10" headers="c4">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub3" id="r1" headers="c1">All recipients</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c2 c5">44.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c2 c6">31,911</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c3 c7">50.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c3 c8">34,773</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c4 c9">48.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 c4 c10">34,156</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="c1">Sex</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r3" headers="r2 c1">Female</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c5">43.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c6">30,868</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c7">48.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c8">33,734</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c4 c9">47.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c4 c10">32,943</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r4" headers="r2 c1">Male</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c5">45.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c6">32,562</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c7">50.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c8">35,339</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c4 c9">49.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c4 c10">34,808</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r5" headers="c1">Age</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r5 c1">Younger than 8</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c2 c5">43.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c2 c6">30,607</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c3 c7">49.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c3 c8">33,945</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c4 c9">48.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 c4 c10">33,546</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r7" headers="r5 r6 c1">Low birth weight, younger than 1</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c2 c5">22.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c2 c6">13,929</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c3 c7">29.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c3 c8">17,556</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c4 c9">23.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r7 c4 c10">13,908</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r8" headers="r5 r6 c1">Other</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c2 c5">47.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c2 c6">33,408</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c3 c7">53.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c3 c8">36,875</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c4 c9">51.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r6 r8 c4 c10">36,353</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r9" headers="r5 c1"><span class="nobr">8–12</span></th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c2 c5">49.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c2 c6">36,339</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c3 c7">53.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c3 c8">37,900</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c4 c9">52.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r9 c4 c10">37,020</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r10" headers="r5 c1"><span class="nobr">13–17</span></th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c2 c5">43.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c2 c6">31,382</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c3 c7">47.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c3 c8">33,713</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c4 c9">45.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 r10 c4 c10">32,370</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r11" headers="c1">Impairment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r11 c1">Congenital anomalies</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c2 c5">40.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c2 c6">27,147</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c3 c7">46.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c3 c8">31,028</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c4 c9">43.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r12 c4 c10">29,058</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r13" headers="r11 c1">Endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c2 c5">44.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c2 c6">31,906</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c3 c7">48.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c3 c8">34,823</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c4 c9">48.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r13 c4 c10">34,573</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r14" headers="r11 c1">Infectious and parasitic diseases</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c2 c5">46.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c2 c6">34,745</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c3 c7">50.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c3 c8">36,016</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c4 c9">49.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r14 c4 c10">35,759</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r15" headers="r11 c1">Injuries</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c2 c5">43.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c2 c6">29,026</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c3 c7">47.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c3 c8">32,269</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c4 c9">47.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r15 c4 c10">31,599</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r16" headers="r11 c1">Mental impairments</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r17" headers="r11 r16 c1">Autistic disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c2 c5">48.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c2 c6">32,256</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c3 c7">53.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c3 c8">35,161</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c4 c9">52.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r17 c4 c10">35,240</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r18" headers="r11 r16 c1">Developmental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c2 c5">49.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c2 c6">36,118</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c3 c7">54.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c3 c8">38,307</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c4 c9">52.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r18 c4 c10">37,656</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r19" headers="r11 r16 c1">Childhood and adolescent disorders not elsewhere classified</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c2 c5">48.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c2 c6">36,138</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c3 c7">53.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c3 c8">38,385</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c4 c9">52.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r19 c4 c10">38,413</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r20" headers="r11 r16 c1">Intellectual disability</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c2 c5">52.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c2 c6">37,502</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c3 c7">55.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c3 c8">39,180</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c4 c9">55.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r20 c4 c10">38,821</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r21" headers="r11 r16 c1">Mood disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c2 c5">46.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c2 c6">33,812</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c3 c7">50.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c3 c8">35,505</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c4 c9">47.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r21 c4 c10">34,048</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r22" headers="r11 r16 c1">Organic mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c2 c5">49.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c2 c6">35,420</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c3 c7">53.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c3 c8">37,255</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c4 c9">52.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r22 c4 c10">36,711</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r23" headers="r11 r16 c1">Schizophrenic and other psychotic disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c2 c5">49.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c2 c6">35,808</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c3 c7">53.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c3 c8">37,476</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c4 c9">50.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r23 c4 c10">36,222</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r24" headers="r11 r16 c1">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c2 c5">49.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c2 c6">36,791</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c3 c7">53.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c3 c8">38,367</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c4 c9">51.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r16 r24 c4 c10">37,550</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r25" headers="r11 c1">Neoplasms</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c2 c5">31.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c2 c6">20,920</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c3 c7">39.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c3 c8">25,896</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c4 c9">36.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r25 c4 c10">23,765</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r26" headers="r11 c1">Diseases <span class="nobr">of the—</span></th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r27" headers="r11 r26 c1">Blood and blood-forming organs</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c2 c5">49.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c2 c6">35,296</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c3 c7">53.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c3 c8">37,677</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c4 c9">52.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r27 c4 c10">37,464</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r28" headers="r11 r26 c1">Circulatory system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c2 c5">39.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c2 c6">27,496</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c3 c7">44.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c3 c8">30,186</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c4 c9">42.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r28 c4 c10">28,647</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r29" headers="r11 r26 c1">Digestive system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c2 c5">40.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c2 c6">27,997</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c3 c7">44.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c3 c8">29,796</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c4 c9">41.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r29 c4 c10">27,425</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r30" headers="r11 r26 c1">Genitourinary system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c2 c5">45.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c2 c6">31,014</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c3 c7">48.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c3 c8">33,944</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c4 c9">47.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r30 c4 c10">32,242</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r31" headers="r11 r26 c1">Musculoskeletal system and connective tissue</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c2 c5">45.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c2 c6">32,946</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c3 c7">51.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c3 c8">37,313</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c4 c9">48.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r31 c4 c10">34,711</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r32" headers="r11 r26 c1">Nervous system and sense organs</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c2 c5">47.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c2 c6">32,579</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c3 c7">51.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c3 c8">35,291</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c4 c9">50.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r32 c4 c10">34,723</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r33" headers="r11 r26 c1">Respiratory system</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c2 c5">45.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c2 c6">33,588</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c3 c7">51.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c3 c8">37,893</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c4 c9">48.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r33 c4 c10">35,238</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r34" headers="r11 r26 c1">Skin and subcutaneous tissue</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c2 c5">44.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c2 c6">32,720</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c3 c7">51.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c3 c8">38,099</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c4 c9">49.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r26 r34 c4 c10">35,973</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r35" headers="r11 c1">Other</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c2 c5">27.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c2 c6">17,735</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c3 c7">33.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c3 c8">20,307</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c4 c9">28.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r35 c4 c10">17,784</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r36" headers="r11 c1">Unknown or missing data</th>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c2 c5">38.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c2 c6">30,870</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c3 c7">44.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c3 c8">31,687</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c4 c9">44.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r11 r36 c4 c10">32,096</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="7">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="7">NOTES: Includes recipients of concurrent <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits.
|
|
<div class="newNote">Rounded percentages do not necessarily sum to totals.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="table" id="tableA2">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table <span class="nobr">A-2.</span> </span>Regression-adjusted <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program mean benefit duration and amount in the 5 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award: How the 2007 and 2012 child award cohorts differ from the 1997 cohort, by program</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:14em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:6em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:6em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:6em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" scope="colgroup">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th scope="col">Coefficient</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Coefficient</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Coefficient</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">2007 cohort</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td>5.02***</td>
|
|
<td>0.06</td>
|
|
<td>5.14***</td>
|
|
<td>0.06</td>
|
|
<td>0.33***</td>
|
|
<td>0.05</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td>2,736***</td>
|
|
<td>55</td>
|
|
<td>2,696***</td>
|
|
<td>56</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">40*</td>
|
|
<td>22</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">2012 cohort</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td>3.39***</td>
|
|
<td>0.06</td>
|
|
<td>3.54***</td>
|
|
<td>0.06</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">0.03</td>
|
|
<td>0.05</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td>1,755***</td>
|
|
<td>54</td>
|
|
<td>1,842***</td>
|
|
<td>56</td>
|
|
<td>-88***</td>
|
|
<td>21</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="7">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="7">NOTES: Benefit amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.
|
|
<div class="newNote">* = statistically significant at the 10 percent level; *** = statistically significant at the 1 percent level; two-tailed tests.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="table" id="tableA3">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table <span class="nobr">A-3.</span> </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program benefit durations and amounts for younger child awardees (aged <span class="nobr">0–7)</span> in the 10 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award, and percentage of the period on the program rolls: By program, 1997 and 2007 award cohorts, excluding low birth weight awardees</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:19em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="6" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c4" headers="c2">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c3">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r1" headers="c1">Sample size</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 c2">101,511</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 c3">145,106</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="6"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r3" headers="r2 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c4">80.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c5">76.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c6">8.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c7">89.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c8">86.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c9">10.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r4" headers="r2 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c4">66.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c5">64.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c6">7.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c7">74.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c8">71.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c9">8.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r5" headers="c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c2 c4">56,426</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c2 c5">52,853</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c2 c6">3,573</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c3 c7">62,562</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c3 c8">58,865</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c3 c9">3,697</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="7">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="7">NOTE: Benefit amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="table" id="tableA4">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table <span class="nobr">A-4.</span> </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program benefit durations and amounts for younger child awardees (aged <span class="nobr">0–7)</span> in the 5 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award, and percentage of the period on the program rolls: By program, 1997, 2007, and 2012 award cohorts</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:19em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="9" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c4">2012</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c3">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c10" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c11" headers="c4">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c12" headers="c4"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c13" headers="c4"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="panel" id="r1">All younger child awardees</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="r1 c1">Sample size</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c2">95,671</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c3">135,183</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c4">156,694</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r3" headers="r1 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c2">100.0</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c3">100.0</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c4">100.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r4" headers="r1 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="9"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r5" headers="r1 r4 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c5">45.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c6">44.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c7">3.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c8">51.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c9">50.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c10">4.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c4 c11">49.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c4 c12">48.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c4 c13">3.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r1 r4 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c5">76.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c6">74.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c7">5.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c8">85.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c9">83.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c10">6.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c4 c11">83.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c4 c12">81.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c4 c13">6.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r7" headers="r1 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c5">33,109</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c6">31,911</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c7">1,198</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c8">36,040</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c9">34,773</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c10">1,267</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c4 c11">35,278</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c4 c12">34,156</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c4 c13">1,122</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="panel" id="r8">Award was not based on low birth weight</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r9" headers="r8 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c2">89.6</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c3">91.3</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c4">91.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r10" headers="r8 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="9"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r11" headers="r8 r10 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c5">46.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c6">45.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c7">3.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c8">51.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c9">50.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c10">3.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c4 c11">50.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c4 c12">50.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c4 c13">3.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r8 r10 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c5">78.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c6">76.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c7">5.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c8">85.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c9">84.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c10">6.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c4 c11">84.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c4 c12">83.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c4 c13">5.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r13" headers="r8 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c5">33,929</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c6">32,879</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c7">1,051</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c8">36,325</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c9">35,174</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c10">1,150</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c4 c11">36,027</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c4 c12">35,009</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c4 c13">1,018</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="panelWithSub" id="r14">Underwent a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="subWithPanel" id="r15" headers="r14">Enrollment continued</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r16" headers="r14 r15 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c2">5.1</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c3">4.1</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c4">4.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r17" headers="r14 r15 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="9"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r18" headers="r14 r15 r17 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c5">52.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c6">52.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c7">1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c8">57.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c9">57.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c10">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c4 c11">55.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c4 c12">55.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c4 c13">1.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r19" headers="r14 r15 r17 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c5">87.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c6">87.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c7">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c8">96.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c9">96.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c10">2.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c4 c11">93.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c4 c12">92.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c4 c13">2.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r20" headers="r14 r15 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c5">35,390</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c6">35,006</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c7">384</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c8">38,916</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c9">38,525</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c10">391</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c4 c11">37,563</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c4 c12">37,217</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c4 c13">346</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="subpanel" id="r21" headers="r14">Enrollment ceased</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r22" headers="r14 r21 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c2">5.2</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c3">4.5</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c4">4.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r23" headers="r14 r21 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="9"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r24" headers="r14 r21 r23 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c5">21.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c6">20.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c7">1.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c8">42.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c9">41.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c10">1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c4 c11">31.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c4 c12">31.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c4 c13">1.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r25" headers="r14 r21 r23 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c5">35.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c6">33.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c7">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c8">70.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c9">69.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c10">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c4 c11">53.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c4 c12">51.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c4 c13">2.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r26" headers="r14 r21 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c5">14,290</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c6">13,763</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c7">526</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c8">27,478</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c9">27,111</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c10">367</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c4 c11">20,347</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c4 c12">19,970</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c4 c13">377</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="10">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="10">NOTES: <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> outcomes are after completion of all appeals.
|
|
<div class="newNote">Benefit amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">Rounded components of percentage distributions do not necessarily sum to 100.0.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="table" id="tableA5">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table <span class="nobr">A-5.</span> </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program benefit durations and amounts for older child awardees (aged <span class="nobr">13–17)</span> in the 5 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award, and percentage of the period on the program rolls: By program, 1997, 2007, and 2012 award cohorts</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:19em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="9" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c4">2012</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c3">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c10" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c11" headers="c4">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c12" headers="c4"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c13" headers="c4"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="panel" id="r1">All older child awardees</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="r1 c1">Sample size</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c2">15,871</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c3">23,351</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r2 c4">23,496</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r3" headers="r1 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c2">100.0</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c3">100.0</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 r3 c4">100.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r4" headers="r1 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="9"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r5" headers="r1 r4 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c5">45.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c6">43.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c2 c7">6.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c8">48.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c9">47.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c3 c10">6.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c4 c11">47.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c4 c12">45.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r5 c4 c13">5.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r1 r4 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c5">75.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c6">72.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c2 c7">10.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c8">81.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c9">79.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c3 c10">10.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c4 c11">78.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c4 c12">76.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 r6 c4 c13">9.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r7" headers="r1 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c5">33,888</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c6">31,432</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c7">2,456</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c8">36,084</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c9">33,752</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c10">2,332</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c4 c11">34,589</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c4 c12">32,401</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c4 c13">2,188</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="panel" id="r8">Enrollment ceased before age 18</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r9" headers="r8 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c2">40.4</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c3">39.3</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r8 r9 c4">39.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r10" headers="r8 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="9"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r11" headers="r8 r10 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c5">36.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c6">33.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c2 c7">7.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c8">43.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c9">41.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c3 c10">7.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c4 c11">43.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c4 c12">40.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r11 c4 c13">7.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r8 r10 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c5">60.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c6">55.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c2 c7">12.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c8">73.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c9">68.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c3 c10">12.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c4 c11">72.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c4 c12">68.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r10 r12 c4 c13">11.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r13" headers="r8 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c5">27,660</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c6">24,390</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c2 c7">3,270</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c8">32,632</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c9">29,468</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c3 c10">3,164</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c4 c11">32,008</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c4 c12">29,068</td>
|
|
<td headers="r8 r13 c4 c13">2,940</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="panelWithSub" id="r14">Underwent an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="subWithPanel" id="r15" headers="r14">Enrollment continued</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r16" headers="r14 r15 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c2">39.4</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c3">36.3</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r15 r16 c4">34.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r17" headers="r14 r15 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="9"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r18" headers="r14 r15 r17 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c5">56.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c6">56.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c2 c7">5.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c8">57.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c9">57.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c3 c10">6.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c4 c11">57.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c4 c12">56.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r18 c4 c13">6.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r19" headers="r14 r15 r17 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c5">94.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c6">93.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c2 c7">9.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c8">95.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c9">94.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c3 c10">10.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c4 c11">95.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c4 c12">94.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r17 r19 c4 c13">10.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r20" headers="r14 r15 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c5">41,531</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c6">39,394</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c2 c7">2,137</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c8">41,730</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c9">39,528</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c3 c10">2,202</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c4 c11">40,898</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c4 c12">38,704</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r15 r20 c4 c13">2,195</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="9" class="subpanel" id="r21" headers="r14">Enrollment ceased</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r22" headers="r14 r21 c1">Percentage of sample</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c2">20.1</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c3">24.5</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r14 r21 r22 c4">25.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r23" headers="r14 r21 c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="9"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r24" headers="r14 r21 r23 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c5">39.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c6">38.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c2 c7">4.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c8">43.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c9">43.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c3 c10">4.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c4 c11">39.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c4 c12">39.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r24 c4 c13">3.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r25" headers="r14 r21 r23 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c5">65.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c6">64.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c2 c7">7.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c8">72.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c9">72.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c3 c10">6.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c4 c11">65.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c4 c12">65.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r23 r25 c4 c13">6.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r26" headers="r14 r21 c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c5">31,437</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c6">29,990</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c2 c7">1,447</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c8">33,258</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c9">32,071</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c3 c10">1,187</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c4 c11">30,028</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c4 c12">28,996</td>
|
|
<td headers="r14 r21 r26 c4 c13">1,033</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="10">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="10">NOTES: Redetermination outcomes are after completion of all appeals.
|
|
<div class="newNote">Benefit amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">Rounded components of percentage distributions do not necessarily sum to 100.0.</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="table" id="tableA6">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table <span class="nobr">A-6.</span> </span>Mean <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability-program benefit durations and amounts for younger child awardees (aged <span class="nobr">0–7)</span> in the 5 years after first <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award, and percentage of the period on the program rolls: By program, 1997, 2007, and 2012 award cohorts, excluding low birth weight cases</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:19em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="9" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c2">1997</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c3">2007</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c4">2012</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c2"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c3">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c10" headers="c3"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c11" headers="c4">Any disability benefit</th>
|
|
<th id="c12" headers="c4"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<th id="c13" headers="c4"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r1" headers="c1">Sample size</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 c2">101,627</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 c3">146,812</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="3" headers="r1 c4">166,859</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="c1">Time in program</th>
|
|
<td colspan="9"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r3" headers="r2 c1">Duration (months)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c5">46.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c6">45.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c2 c7">3.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c8">51.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c9">50.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c3 c10">4.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c4 c11">50.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c4 c12">49.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r3 c4 c13">3.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r4" headers="r2 c1">As a percentage of the entire period</th>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c5">77.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c6">75.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c2 c7">6.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c8">85.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c9">83.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c3 c10">6.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c4 c11">83.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c4 c12">82.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r2 r4 c4 c13">6.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r5" headers="c1">Cumulative amount ($)</th>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c2 c5">33,923</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c2 c6">32,653</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c2 c7">1,270</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c3 c8">36,286</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c3 c9">34,948</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c3 c10">1,338</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c4 c11">35,825</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c4 c12">34,642</td>
|
|
<td headers="r5 c4 c13">1,183</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
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<td class="firstNote" colspan="10">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using administrative records from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
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|
</tr>
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<tr>
|
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<td class="lastNote" colspan="10">NOTE: Benefit amounts are in <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span>–adjusted 2017 dollars.</td>
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</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
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</div>
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<div id="notes">
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|
<h2>Notes</h2>
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|
<p> <a href="#mt1" id="mn1">1</a> In this article, we use “other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s” to refer to the ongoing <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s that do not involve low birth weight. In most years, other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s far outnumber low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt2" id="mn2">2</a> For <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s policies on conducting <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s, see <a href="/ssi/text-cdrs-ussi.htm">https://www.ssa.gov/ssi/text-cdrs-ussi.htm</a>.</p>
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|
<p> <a href="#mt3" id="mn3">3</a> The Policy Surveillance Program provides details on state supplemental payments for child and adult <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients at <a href="https://lawatlas.org/datasets/supplemental-security-income-for-children-with-disabilities">http://lawatlas.org/datasets/supplemental-security-income-for-children-with-disabilities</a>.</p>
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|
<p> <a href="#mt4" id="mn4">4</a> Unlike the child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> eligibility criteria, the adult criteria rely on a work-focused disability definition; specifically, the inability to engage in substantial gainful activity, which in 2020 was designated as monthly earnings of more than $1,260. The adult criteria also do not include any deeming of parental income. In its <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> uses the same medical, income, and asset criteria it uses in adult application decisions. Most children receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> have a redetermination at age 18 (82 percent), although the redeterminations for some recipients occur after age 18 for various reasons (Hemmeter and Bailey 2015).</p>
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|
<p> <a href="#mt5" id="mn5">5</a> For details, see <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/11/18/2019-24700/rules-regarding-the-frequency-and-notice-of-continuing-disability-reviews">https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/11/18/2019-24700/rules-regarding-the-frequency-and-notice-of-continuing-disability-reviews</a>.</p>
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|
<p> <a href="#mt6" id="mn6">6</a> The parent must qualify based on his or her own earnings (that is, not through a relationship, such as a former spouse). Additionally, a child might qualify if one of his or her parents is deceased and was insured for <span class="nobr">Old-Age</span> and Survivors Insurance benefits at the time of death.</p>
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|
<p> <a href="#mt7" id="mn7">7</a> Although we limit our study samples to first-time <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> awardees, some sample members previously could have received <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> or <span class="nobr">Old-Age</span> and Survivors Insurance benefits as a minor child. Because prior benefit receipt is possible, the apparent share of the period in which a person received any benefits can exceed 100 percent.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt8" id="mn8">8</a> The similarities between the 2007 and 2012 cohorts include the patterns of payment receipt by demographic and impairment characteristics.</p>
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|
<p> <a href="#mt9" id="mn9">9</a> About 24 percent of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients aged 18 to 65 first became eligible for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> before age 18 (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2019b).</p>
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|
<p><a href="#mt10" id="mn10">10</a> We are not aware of any major legislative or regulatory changes that would account for this shift.</p>
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|
<p><a href="#mt11" id="mn11">11</a> <a href="#tableA2">Appendix Table <span class="nobr">A-2</span></a> presents summary <span class="nobr">5-year</span> results. Additionally, regression coefficients for each characteristic included as a control variable in the regression (that is, all the characteristics in <a href="#table3">Table 3</a>) are available on request (<a href="mailto:mlevere@mathematica-mpr.com">mlevere@mathematica-mpr.com</a>).</p>
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<p><a href="#mt12" id="mn12">12</a> Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies (2015) also found that differences in the caseload do not play a major role in disability-benefit receipt trends.</p>
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|
<p><a href="#mt13" id="mn13">13</a> Because <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt tends to be much shorter among youths whose payments ceased following a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>, we conducted a robustness check to generate aggregate-cohort statistics that exclude people with a low birth weight–related award. <a href="#tableA3">Appendix Table <span class="nobr">A-3</span></a> shows that persistent cross-cohort differences remained after excluding the low birth weight awardees.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt14" id="mn14">14</a> <a href="#tableA4">Appendix Tables <span class="nobr">A-4,</span> <span class="nobr">A-5,</span> and <span class="nobr">A-6</span></a> present analogous results for the 5 years after first award, respectively for younger awardees, for older awardees who reached age 18 within 5 years of award, and for younger awardees excluding low birth weight cases. All three tables show results for the 1997, 2007, and 2012 award cohorts. As discussed earlier, the results for the 2007 and 2012 cohorts are similar enough to allow us to focus our analysis on differences between the 1997 and 2007 cohorts.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt15" id="mn15">15</a> Although we compared durations across cohorts by the result of an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination and a low birth weight <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>, a similar comparison by the result of a childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> not related to low birth weight would not lead to meaningful results. The timing of these other childhood <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s differed for the 1997 and 2007 cohorts, as shown in <a href="#chart5">Chart 5</a>. Therefore, any differences in program stays across cohorts would be due to the differences in <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> timing. Additionally, because the share of recipients subject to <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s differed over time, the differing distributions of youths among each group (not having a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>, having a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessation, or having a continuation) would raise selection concerns.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt16" id="mn16">16</a> We used the values plotted in <a href="#chart5">Chart 5</a> to calculate the per-recipient values shown in <a href="#chart6">Chart 6</a>. For example, in the 1997 cohort, Chart 5 shows that 2.3 percent of recipients had payments ceased within 2 years of award and 5.4 percent had payments ceased within 3 years of award; therefore, 3.1 percent had payments cease in year 3. By multiplying 3.1 percent by the additional 84 months (7 years) of payments the youth would have received if payments had continued for all 10 years, we get the <span class="nobr">2.6-month</span> estimate shown in Chart 6 for the 1997 cohort 3 years after the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> award.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt17" id="mn17">17</a> In <a href="#chart6">Chart 6</a>, the sum of the potential months of payments negated by a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessation for each year since award is about 8.7 for the 1997 cohort and about 3.6 for the 2007 cohort; the difference, after accounting for rounding, is nearly 5.2 months.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt18" id="mn18">18</a> We also examined patterns in cessations resulting from <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s occurring within the first 5 years after award for the 1997, 2007, and 2012 cohorts. The 2012 cohort had more <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessations in that period than the 2007 cohort and fewer <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessations than the 1997 cohort. The patterns in overall program stays presented in <a href="#table2">Table 2</a>, with the 2012 cohort having shorter durations than the 2007 cohort and longer durations than the 1997 cohort, are therefore consistent with the patterns for cases with <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> cessations.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt19" id="mn19">19</a> We estimate this $400 million difference using the numbers shown in <a href="#table2">Table 2</a>. Average monthly payments received are $687 (dividing the cumulative <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment amount of $51,397 by the average duration of 74.8 months). We then multiply $687 by the 5.2 months of potential payments negated by the 1997 cohort's higher cessation rates, then multiply that result by the 111,542 people in the cohort sample; the product is approximately $400 million. This simple back-of-the-envelope calculation does not reflect that some people whose payments ceased might have subsequently reapplied and returned to <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt20" id="mn20">20</a> Although the cessation rate could yet decline for the 2007 cohort, it seems unlikely to fall to the level of the 1997 cohort. In a typical year, up to 10 percent of initial cessations are eventually overturned on appeal. However, because appeals rarely last longer than 3 years, only youths who reached age 18 after 2014 (or, those aged 8 to 11 at the time of award) could have their redetermination decision overturned. The total reduction in the cessation rate is therefore likely to be well below 10 percent.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt21" id="mn21">21</a> Besides <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>s, a variety of factors not explored in this article could also contribute to the cross-cohort differences in payment receipt. For example, variation in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt between states could be important; if <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients in the states that have driven program growth tend to remain on the rolls longer, shifts in the geographic distribution of the caseload could be a critical factor (Wittenburg and others 2015). Alternatively, economic conditions might play a key role; the Great Recession and its ensuing adverse effects on incomes may have lowered the number of 2007 awardees whose parents' income might otherwise have increased enough for them to exit <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>. (Note, though, that we do not find meaningful compositional differences between the 2007 cohort and the postrecession 2012 cohort.) Finally, the availability of alternative assistance programs and other income sources might also influence <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participation decisions (Floyd 2020). </p>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div id="references">
|
|
<h2>References</h2>
|
|
<p>Aizer, Anna, Nora E. Gordon, and Melissa S. Kearney. 2013. “Exploring the Growth of the Child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Caseload.” <abbr class="spell">NBER</abbr> Disability Research Center Paper <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">NB</abbr>13-02.</span> Cambridge, <abbr title="Massachusetts">MA</abbr>: National Bureau of Economic Research.</p>
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|
<p>Bailey, Michelle Stegman, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. 2015. “<a href="/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2015-02.html">Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Program Participants, 2013 Update</a>.” Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2015-02.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</p>
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|
<p>Berkowitz, Edward D., and Larry DeWitt. 2013. <i>The Other Welfare: Supplemental Security Income and <abbr>U.S.</abbr> Social Policy.</i> Ithaca, <abbr title="New York">NY</abbr>: Cornell University Press.</p>
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<p>Davies, Paul S., Kalman Rupp, and David Wittenburg. 2009. “A Life-Cycle Perspective on the Transition to Adulthood Among Children Receiving Supplemental Security Income Payments.” <i>Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation</i> 30(3): <span class="nobr">133–151.</span></p>
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<p>Deshpande, Manasi. 2016. “Does Welfare Inhibit Success? The <span class="nobr">Long-Term</span> Effects of Removing Low-Income Youth from the Disability Rolls.” <i>American Economic Review</i> 106(11): <span class="nobr">3300–3330.</span></p>
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|
<p>Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. 2019. “Child Population: Number of Children (in Millions) Ages <span class="nobr">0–17</span> in the United States by Age, <span class="nobr">1950–2019</span> and Projected <span class="nobr">2020–2050.</span>” <a href="https://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/tables/pop1.asp">https://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/tables/pop1.asp</a>.</p>
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<p>Floyd, Ife. 2020. <i>Cash Assistance Should Reach Millions More Families.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Center for Budget and Policy Priorities.</p>
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<p>Government Accountability Office. 2012. <i>Supplemental Security Income: Better Management Oversight Needed for Children's Benefits</i>. <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr>-12-497.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr>.</p>
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<p>Hemmeter, Jeffrey. 2011. “Health-Related Unmet Needs of Supplemental Security Income Youth After the <span class="nobr">Age-18</span> Redetermination.” <i>Health Services Research</i> 46(4): <span class="nobr">1224–1242.</span></p>
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<p>Hemmeter, Jeffrey, and Michelle Stegman Bailey. 2015. “<a href="/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2015-03.html">Childhood Continuing Disability Reviews and <span class="nobr">Age-18</span> Redeterminations for Supplemental Security Income Recipients: Outcomes and Subsequent Program Participation</a>.” Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2015-03.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</p>
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<p>Hemmeter, Jeffrey, Jacqueline Kauff, and David Wittenburg. 2009. “Changing Circumstances: Experiences of Child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Recipients Before and After Their <span class="nobr">Age-18</span> Redetermination for Adult Benefits.” <i>Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation</i> 30(3): <span class="nobr">201–221.</span></p>
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|
<p>Hemmeter, Jeffrey, David R. Mann, and David C. Wittenburg. 2017. “Supplemental Security Income and the Transition to Adulthood in the United States: State Variations in Outcomes Following the <span class="nobr">Age-18</span> Redetermination.” <i>Social Service Review</i> 91(1): <span class="nobr">106–133.</span></p>
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|
<p>Levere, Michael. 2019. “The Labor Market Consequences of Receiving Disability Benefits During Childhood.” <i>Journal of Human Resources</i>, print version forthcoming.</p>
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|
<p>Maestas, Nicole, Kathleen J. Mullen, and Alexander Strand. 2018. “The Effect of Economic Conditions on the Disability Insurance Program: Evidence from the Great Recession.” <abbr class="spell">NBER</abbr> Working Paper <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 25338. Cambridge, <abbr title="Massachusetts">MA</abbr>: National Bureau of Economic Research.</p>
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<p>National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2015. <i>Mental Disorders and Disabilities Among Low-Income Children</i>. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: National Academies Press. <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/21780/mental-disorders-and-disabilities-among-low-income-children">https://www.nap.edu/catalog/21780/mental-disorders-and-disabilities-among-low-income-children</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2018. <i>Opportunities for Improving Programs and Services for Children with Disabilities</i>. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: National Academies Press.</p>
|
|
<p>Romig, Kathleen. 2017. <i><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>: A Lifeline for Children with Disabilities</i>. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.</p>
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<p>Rupp, Kalman, Jeffrey Hemmeter, and Paul S. Davies. 2015. “<a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v75n1/v75n1p35.html">Longitudinal Patterns of Disability Program Participation and Mortality Across Childhood <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Award Cohorts</a>.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 75(1): <span class="nobr">35–64.</span></p>
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|
<p>Rupp, Kalman, and Charles G. Scott. 1995. “Length of Stay in the Supplemental Security Income Disability Program.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 58(1): <span class="nobr">29–47.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v58n1/v58n1p29.pdf">https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v58n1/v58n1p29.pdf</a>.</p>
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|
<p>———. 1998. “Determinants of Duration on the Disability Rolls and Program Trends.” In <i>Growth in Disability Benefits: Explanations and Policy Implications,</i> edited by Kalman Rupp and David C. Stapleton <span class="nobr">(139–176).</span> Kalamazoo, <abbr title="Michigan">MI</abbr>: W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.</p>
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<p>Schmidt, Lucie, and Purvi Sevak. 2017. “Child Participation in Supplemental Security Income: Cross- and Within-State Determinants of Caseload Growth.” <i>Journal of Disability Policy Studies</i> 28(3): <span class="nobr">131–140.</span></p>
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<p>Shattuck, Paul T. 2006. “The Contribution of Diagnostic Substitution to the Growing Administrative Prevalence of Autism in <abbr>U.S.</abbr> Special Education.” <i>Pediatrics</i> 117(4): <span class="nobr">1028–1037.</span></p>
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|
<p>[<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>] Social Security Administration. 2019a. <i>2019 Annual Report of the Supplemental Security Income Program</i>. Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="/OACT/ssir/SSI19/ssi2019.pdf">https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/ssir/SSI19/ssi2019.pdf</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>———. 2019b. <i>Annual Report on Medical Continuing Disability Reviews: Fiscal Year 2015.</i> Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="/legislation/FY%202015%20CDR%20Report.pdf">https://www.ssa.gov/legislation/FY%202015%20CDR%20Report.pdf</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>———. 2020. <i>2020 Annual Report of the Supplemental Security Income Program</i>. Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="/OACT/ssir/SSI20/ssi2020.pdf">https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/ssir/SSI20/ssi2020.pdf</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>Wittenburg, David, John Tambornino, Elizabeth Brown, Gretchen Rowe, Mason DeCamillis, and Gilbert Crouse. 2015. “The Child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Program and the Changing Safety Net.” <abbr class="spell">ASPE</abbr> Research Brief. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. <a href="https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/private/pdf/139261/rb_ChildSSInet.pdf">https://aspe.hhs.gov/system/files/pdf/139261/rb_ChildSSInet.pdf</a>.</p>
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