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<h1 itemprop="headline">Earnings and Disability Program Participation of Youth Transition Demonstration Participants after 24 Months</h1>
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<div id="hByline">by <span itemprop="author">Jeffrey Hemmeter</span><br>Social Security Bulletin, <abbr title="Volume">Vol.</abbr> 74 No. 1, 2014 (released February 2014)</div>
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<div id="breadcrumbs" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/BreadcrumbList">You are here: <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="/" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name">Social Security Administration</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="1" /></span> > <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="/policy/index.html" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name">Research, Statistics & Policy Analysis</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="2" /></span> > <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="/policy/docs/ssb/index.html" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name">Social Security Bulletin</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="3" /></span> > <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="index.html" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name"><abbr title="Volume">Vol.</abbr> 74, <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="4" /></span></div>
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<p id="synopsis" itemprop="description">Using data from Social Security Administration (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>) program records, this article evaluates employment and <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability program payment outcomes for youths participating in <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s Youth Transition Demonstration (<abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>) project. Participants were randomly assigned to treatment or control groups at each of six project sites. Treatment-group youths in the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> received extra employment-related and other supports in order to improve educational and vocational outcomes during their transition to adulthood. The <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> had a positive impact on the proportion of youths with earnings in the first and second years after random assignment at three sites, with two of those sites having positive impacts in both years. Additionally, the treatment groups in four sites had higher Supplemental Security Income participation rates 24 months after random assignment.</p>
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<hr />
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<div class="eightypercent">
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<p>Jeffrey Hemmeter is an economist with the Office of Program Development, Office of Research, Demonstration, and Employment Support, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, Social Security Administration.</p>
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<p><i>Acknowledgments:</i> The author thanks Chris Silanskis, Joyanne Cobb, Susan Kalasunas, Thomas Fraker, Arif Mamun, Paul Davies, Deborah Cortwright, and Chris Tamborini for their helpful comments on this article and an earlier paper.</p>
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<p>Contents of this publication are <a href="/policy/accessibility.html">not copyrighted</a>; any items may be reprinted, but citation of the <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> as the source is requested. The findings and conclusions presented in the <i>Bulletin</i> are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Social Security Administration.</p>
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</div>
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</div>
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<h2>Introduction</h2>
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<div class="abbrtable">
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<table role="presentation">
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<caption>Selected Abbreviations</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:25%"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="1"></colgroup>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">BHBF</abbr></td>
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<td>Broadened Horizons, Brighter Futures</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr></td>
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<td>Continuing Disability Review</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W</span></td>
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<td>Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">CTP</abbr></td>
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<td>Career Transition Program</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr>CUNY</abbr></td>
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<td>City University of New York</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></td>
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<td>Disability Insurance</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr></td>
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<td>Mathematica Policy Research</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr></td>
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<td>substantial gainful activity</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SPI</abbr></td>
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<td>State Partnership Initiative</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr></td>
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<td>Social Security Administration</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></td>
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<td>Supplemental Security Income</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr>WINS</abbr></td>
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<td>Work Incentive Network of Supports</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr></td>
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<td>Youth Transition Demonstration</td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</div>
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<p>Many youths with disabilities need assistance managing their transitions to adulthood. Services available through the education system typically end when youths complete secondary school and are seldom coordinated with adult-based services (Osgood, Foster, and Courtney 2010; <abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr> 2012). The difficulty of transition to adulthood is compounded for youths receiving means-tested Supplemental Security Income (<abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>), who must cope with the added barriers of poverty. Relatedly, many youths who receive <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> drop out of school and encounter the criminal justice system (Loprest and Wittenburg 2007), factors that reduce the likelihood of employment in early adulthood (Hemmeter, Kauff, and Wittenburg 2009). As a result, former child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients tend to have low labor force participation well into adulthood (Davies, Rupp, and Wittenburg 2009) and remain on the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> rolls for substantial periods as adults (Rupp and Scott 1995).</p>
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<p>To help address these issues, the Social Security Administration (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>) conducted the Youth Transition Demonstration (<abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>) project to identify interventions that improve the educational and vocational outcomes for youths aged <span class="nobr">14–25</span> who receive or potentially qualify for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments or Social Security Disability Insurance (<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>) benefits.<sup><a href="#mn1" id="mt1">1</a></sup> <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants received a variety of employment, education, and other services. To encourage work while they participated in the project, youths were also entitled to waivers of certain <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> rules that would otherwise limit the amount of earnings they could keep while remaining eligible for program payments.</p>
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<p>Participants were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups at six <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project sites. Control group members were subject to standard <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program rules and received the employment services ordinarily available in their communities; treatment group members were eligible for the program rule waivers and enhanced employment supports. Participant surveys conducted 1 year after random assignment indicated that treatment groups received higher levels of employment services than control groups at all sites, but experienced no significant reductions in benefit receipt. Although employment increased for participants at three sites, no other statistically significant outcomes emerged (Fraker and others 2011a, 2011b, 2011c, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c). Early results, however, may be misleading. Project impacts may fade as participants no longer receive services. Alternatively, impacts may increase as youths mature and, over time, apply the skills obtained in the project. As part of the <span class="nobr">long-term</span> research strategy for the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>, in this article I expand on those early results, using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program data to describe the impact of the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> on earnings and on <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program participation in the 2 years following random assignment.<sup><a href="#mn2" id="mt2">2</a></sup> Future reports will assess these outcomes using both administrative and survey data.</p>
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<p>At three of the six sites, the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> had a positive impact on the proportion of youths with earnings 2 years after random assignment. At two of those sites, and at one site among the other three, the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> also had positive impacts on earnings in the first year after random assignment. One of those sites guaranteed a summer job in the first year to all treatment group members interested in employment; however, that guarantee was not in place in the second year. Average earnings for the treatment group at that site were lower than those for the control group, consistent with the successful motivation of marginal workers (who would be expected to have lower average earnings) to attempt employment. Additionally, the treatment groups had higher <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participation rates and payment amounts than control group members in four sites, consistent with the intended effect of the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program rule waivers.</p>
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<h2><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> Project Overview</h2>
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<p><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> started the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects in 2003 to determine whether providing extra employment-related and other supports to youths receiving or potentially qualifying for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits would improve educational and economic outcomes during their transition to adulthood, thereby eventually reducing dependence on <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> programs. The <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> began with seven sites: one each in California, Colorado, Iowa, Maryland, and Mississippi, and two in New York. The sites provided supports and services to help “youth with disabilities maximize their economic self-sufficiency as they transition from school to work.” Each site worked under a cooperative agreement with <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> to “collaborate among federal, state, and local agencies to develop and implement sustainable improvements in the delivery of transition services and supports” and to “test ways to remove other barriers to employment and economic self-sufficiency” (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2003).</p>
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<p>Although services and supports differed somewhat across sites, each site provided <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program benefits counseling, career counseling, personalized planning, family counseling, opportunities for family involvement in client services and activities, and coordination of services (Martinez and others 2010). Participants in each site were also eligible for waivers of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program rules that would otherwise restrict their eligibility for payments if earnings exceeded certain thresholds. Also, the termination of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility due to a finding of medical improvement in a continuing disability review (<abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr>) or <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination was deferred while youths participated in the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>. Table 1 describes the standard <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability program work incentives and the associated <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waivers of certain program rules.</p>
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<div class="table" id="table1">
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<table class="textTable">
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 1. </span><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> work incentives and the effects of associated <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> program rule waivers</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:12em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:30em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:18em"></colgroup>
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<thead>
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<tr>
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<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Work incentive</th>
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<th scope="col">Description</th>
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<th scope="col">Policy change under <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waiver</th>
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr class="shaded">
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<th class="panel" colspan="3" scope="rowgroup"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">Student Earned Income Exclusion (<abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr>)</th>
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<td>Enables recipients who are students to exclude a certain amount of earnings from countable income and thus avoid reductions in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments. In 2009 and 2010, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> excluded the first $1,640 of a student's earnings each month, to a maximum of $6,600 in a year. <abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr> eligibility ends when a recipient attains age 22.</td>
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<td>Age limit is waived for <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants for as long as they attend school regularly.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">General Earned Income Exclusion (<abbr class="spell">GEIE</abbr>)</th>
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<td>Enables most <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients to exclude from countable income the first $65 of earnings plus <span class="nobr">one-half</span> of additional earnings.</td>
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<td><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants can exclude from countable income the first $65 of earnings plus <span class="nobr">three-quarters</span> of additional earnings.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">Plan to Achieve Self-Support (<abbr>PASS</abbr>)</th>
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<td>Enables <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients to exclude from countable income and resources amounts paid for certain expenses, such as the cost of owning a car, pursuing an education, and purchasing assistive technology, to achieve a specific <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>-approved work goal.</td>
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<td><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants can also use a <abbr>PASS</abbr> to explore career options or pursue additional education.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">Individual Development Account (<abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr>)</th>
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<td>Provides a trust-like account for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients to save for a specific goal, such as purchasing a home, going to school, or starting a business. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> matches earnings deposited in an <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr>, often at $2 for every $1 deposited by the participant. The money accumulated in an <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr> is excluded when determining <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> eligibility, and the earnings deposited during a month are excluded when determining the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment amount.</td>
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<td>A <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participant may also use an <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr> to save for other approved goals.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="shaded">
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<th class="panel" colspan="3" scope="rowgroup"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Continuing Disability Reviews and <span class="nobr">Age-18</span> Redeterminations (Section 301)</th>
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<td>Benefits based on disability may continue despite a negative Continuing Disability Review or <span class="nobr">age-18</span> medical redetermination if:
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<ul>
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|
<li>the beneficiary is participating in any of certain programs, and</li>
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|
<li><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> determines that continued participation will increase the likelihood that the individual will remain off the disability rolls permanently once benefits stop.</li>
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</ul>
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These “likelihood” determinations normally must be made on a case-by-case basis.</td>
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<td>If <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> determines that medical disability has stopped and the participant is no longer eligible for assistance, he or she can continue to receive both cash benefits and health care services while participating in the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>.</td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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<tfoot>
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<tr>
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|
<td class="onlyNote" colspan="3">SOURCE: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> (2013) and “<abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> Modified <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Program Rules (Waivers) Descriptions” (<a href="/disabilityresearch/ytdmodifiedssi.html">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/disabilityresearch/ytdmodifiedssi.html</a>).</td>
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</tr>
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|
</tfoot>
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</table>
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</div>
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|
<p>After a brief pilot phase, <abbr class="spell">MDRC</abbr> (a nonprofit contractor) reviewed the seven sites “to determine the feasibility of conducting a national random assignment evaluation of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> and explore each project's appropriateness for and interest in such an evaluation” (Martinez and others 2010, 4). Based on that review, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> terminated two sites (Iowa and Maryland) “because of difficulty they had reaching the goals stated in their cooperative agreements” (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2008). Two other sites (California and Mississippi) continued as originally intended because of their overall strong service design; however, they were unable to implement the revisions recommended in <abbr class="spell">MDRC</abbr>'s report, and are not discussed here.<sup><a href="#mn3" id="mt3">3</a></sup> The other three projects—Colorado Youth Work Incentive Network of Supports (<abbr>WINS</abbr>); Transition <abbr>WORKS</abbr> in Erie County, New York; and the City University of New York (<abbr>CUNY</abbr>) <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> Project in Bronx County, New York—continued with a slightly revised <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> design. I refer to these three as the phase 1 sites.</p>
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<p>The revised <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> included a stronger evaluation design, a technical evaluation, and greater emphasis on employment services (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2008). Mathematica Policy Research (<abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr>) oversaw the implementation and evaluation of the revised <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project; subcontractors provided services at each site. Additionally, TransCen, <abbr title="Incorporated">Inc.</abbr> provided technical assistance to each of the projects, focusing on employment supports. After a national search, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> selected three other sites—Career Transition Program (<abbr class="spell">CTP</abbr>) in Montgomery County, Maryland; Broadened Horizons, Brighter Futures (<abbr class="spell">BHBF</abbr>) in Miami-Dade County, Florida; and West Virginia Youth Works—to join the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project. I refer to these three as the phase 2 sites.</p>
|
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<h3>Recruitment and Enrollment</h3>
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|
<p>The original <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> was designed to serve all eligible youths. The project revision brought about the random assignment of participants into treatment and control groups. This change was difficult for some of the sites, but three of the original sites (the phase 1 sites) successfully modified their projects to accommodate the new recruitment and enrollment design. For example, the Erie County site changed from a classroom-based design to individualized services to allow random assignment into treatment and control groups.</p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr> recruited potential participants from lists of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries aged <span class="nobr">14–25</span> in five of the sites' service areas. <abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr> randomized those lists and recruited the youths into the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project. After the youths voluntarily consented to be part of the project, <abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr> randomly assigned them to either the treatment group or the control group. If the sibling of a randomized youth was also eligible for the project, the sibling was assigned to the randomized youth's group but was not included in the research sample. <abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr> also conducted a baseline survey of the youths before randomization.</p>
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<p>The new Maryland site followed a slightly different protocol. Its service population included youths considered to be at risk of needing, but not yet receiving, <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits. Site staff recruited youths directly into the project primarily from the local school district. After they consented to be part of the project, youths were processed as described for the other sites.</p>
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<p>After randomization, staff at all sites contacted the treatment-group youths and enrolled them into project services. Each of the six sites enrolled between 79 and 89 percent of randomized treatment-group youths into services.</p>
|
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<h3>Project Services</h3>
|
|
<p>Most of the types of services provided at <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects were those recommended by the National Collaborative on Workforce Disability for Youth (<abbr class="spell">NCWD</abbr> 2005), although some were drawn from “best practices” of other interventions for youths with disabilities. The <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project's core interventions addressed the barriers youths face in their transition from school to work. Chart 1 depicts the barriers and the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> intervention components, along with the transition environment and key project outcomes. The <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> specifically addressed these six barriers:</p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>Youths with disabilities often have low expectations for their economic future.</li>
|
|
<li>Many youths with disabilities lack awareness of or access to employment services or work-based experiences.</li>
|
|
<li>The handoff to general adult services is uncoordinated for many youths.</li>
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|
<li>Youths typically have inadequate access to social and health services.</li>
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|
<li>The reduction in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments for recipients with certain thresholds of earned income can be viewed as a financial disincentive to work.</li>
|
|
<li>Many youths and their families believe that working will result in the loss of their <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment or Medicaid.</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
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<div class="chartCenter">
|
|
<div class="chart700" id="chart1">
|
|
<div class="title">Chart 1.<br><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> design objectives</div>
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<div class="scrollChart"><img src="v74n1p1-chart01.gif" alt="Flowchart with text description below." width="700" height="825" /></div>
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<div class="altText"><a class="altTextToggle" href="">Show text description</a>
|
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<div class="align-left">
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<p class="noindent"><b>Text description for Chart 1. <br><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> design objectives</b></p>
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<p class="noindent"><b>Transition Efforts by Youth</b></p>
|
|
<ul>
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|
<li><b><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> intervention components</b>
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|
<ul>
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|
<li>Provide individualized supports before and during employment </li>
|
|
<li>Teach self-sufficiency skills</li>
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|
<li>Include and involve family members</li>
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<li>Alert client to social and health services and service linkages</li>
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|
<li>Provide <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability program benefits counseling and program waivers to encourage work</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</li>
|
|
<li><b>Factors affecting transition</b>
|
|
<ul>
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|
<li><i>General</i>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>Youth's interests and strengths</li>
|
|
<li>Economic climate</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</li>
|
|
<li><i>Resources</i>
|
|
<ul>
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|
<li>Schools, special education, higher education, and specialized training </li>
|
|
<li>Vocational rehabilitation, Ticket to Work, and Workforce Investment Act programs</li>
|
|
<li>Mental health, intellectual disability, and developmental disability systems</li>
|
|
<li><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability programs</li>
|
|
<li>Health care delivery and financing systems</li>
|
|
<li>Community-based service providers</li>
|
|
<li>Employers</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</li>
|
|
<li><b>Barriers</b>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>Low expectations about work and self-sufficiency</li>
|
|
<li>Lack of access to employment services and work-based experiences</li>
|
|
<li>Uncoordinated handoff to adult services</li>
|
|
<li>Inadequate access to social and health services</li>
|
|
<li>Financial disincentives to work</li>
|
|
<li>Incomplete knowledge of how work affects benefits</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><b>Key outcomes</b></p>
|
|
<ul class="topPad1">
|
|
<li><b>Short term</b>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>Preparation for employment</li>
|
|
<li>Paid employment</li>
|
|
<li>Substantial income from earnings and benefits</li>
|
|
<li>Positive attitudes and expectations</li>
|
|
<li>Further education</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</li>
|
|
<li><b>Longer term</b>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>Paid employment </li>
|
|
<li>Substantial income from earnings </li>
|
|
<li>Self-determination</li>
|
|
<li>Pursuit of educational, training, and work opportunities</li>
|
|
<li>Reduced contact with the justice system</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="onlyNote">SOURCE: Adapted from Rangarajan and others (2009).</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>Each of the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> sites offered services to break down these real or perceived barriers to varying degrees. They offered individualized work-based experiences, including internships, job shadowing, job coaching, and competitive paid employment. They offered empowerment training to help participating youths learn to make their own choices (as opposed to having a parent or guardian choose for them). The sites also addressed the barriers by working with the families to break down misunderstandings about program rules; encouraging the families to participate in planning for the youths' self-sufficiency; working closely with local community services to link the educational and work supports for youths with disabilities, smoothing the transition to needed services; and providing case management to coordinate health and other social services. Based on results from the phase 1 sites showing lower-than-expected levels of employment, the phase 2 sites received enhanced technical assistance focused on finding ways to promote competitive employment experiences.</p>
|
|
<p>Youths in the treatment groups were eligible for waivers that allowed them to keep more of their earnings or save their earnings for a work or educational goal without affecting their <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment. To accompany those waivers, the sites provided <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefits counseling. Virginia Commonwealth University trained the benefits counselors, as it had for an earlier program that provided counseling to <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> beneficiaries under the Ticket to Work Act.<sup><a href="#mn4" id="mt4">4</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>The <span class="nobr">short-term</span> objectives for the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project included encouraging participation in employment-promoting activities, increasing paid employment and income, improving attitudes and expectations, and enabling better educational outcomes. In the long term, the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project sought to increase participants' paid employment and total income, improve their self-determination, increase their general participation in productive activities (education, training, or employment), and reduce their contact with the justice system.</p>
|
|
<h2>Site Descriptions</h2>
|
|
<p>Although all the project sites conformed to a general <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> model, their implementations differed. This section provides a broad overview of each site's services and includes a reference to the site's detailed interim report.</p>
|
|
<h3>Colorado Youth <abbr>WINS</abbr></h3>
|
|
<p>The Colorado site was run by the <abbr>WINS</abbr> Partners at the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center. Colorado Youth <abbr>WINS</abbr> served youths aged <span class="nobr">14–25</span> who received <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits in Larimer, El Paso, Pueblo, and Boulder counties. A team of staff members provided services in each of the counties' One Stop Workforce Centers.<sup><a href="#mn5" id="mt5">5</a></sup> The team included a disability program navigator,<sup><a href="#mn6" id="mt6">6</a></sup> a benefits counselor, and one or more career counselors. Four hundred sixty-eight youths were randomized into the Colorado Youth <abbr>WINS</abbr> treatment group; 401 enrolled in services (86 percent). The control group comprised 387 youths. Random assignment occurred between August 2006 and March 2008, and services ended in the fall of 2009. Youths were eligible for services for at least 18 months.</p>
|
|
<p>To help fill gaps in youths' access to services from existing sources—such as the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, local school systems, and other providers—Colorado Youth <abbr>WINS</abbr> focused primarily on case management, disability program navigation, and benefits counseling. Project staff also developed person-centered plans to help the youths identify educational, employment, and benefit goals and needs. Family members were included in most of the discussions. Career counselors provided vocational assessments and career exploration activities (such as <span class="nobr">job-site</span> visits). By locating in the One Stop Workforce Centers, Colorado Youth <abbr>WINS</abbr> provided easy access to job development and placement services. For more information on the Colorado Youth <abbr>WINS</abbr> project, see Fraker and others (2011a).</p>
|
|
<h3>New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr> <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> Project</h3>
|
|
<p>The <abbr>CUNY</abbr> site worked with youths aged <span class="nobr">16–19</span> who received <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits. It was run by <abbr>CUNY</abbr>'s John F. Kennedy Institute for Worker Education at the Hostos and Lehman campuses in Bronx County. Project staff included benefits counselors, parent advocates, career developers, and students at the partner campuses. An advisory committee of community groups, campus experts, and public agencies provided direction for the program and suggested potential service partners and ways to link the program with community services. Four hundred ninety-two youths were randomized into the <abbr>CUNY</abbr> treatment group; 387 enrolled in services (79 percent). The control group comprised 397 youths. Random assignment occurred between July 2006 and November 2008, and services ended in May 2010.</p>
|
|
<p>Treatment-group youths received direct services for 1 school year, after which summer employment and limited follow-up services were available. Youths attended Saturday sessions offering recreational and social activities and workshops on self-determination, benefits planning, and career development. Students from the partner campuses who enrolled in a course on working with youths with disabilities led the social and recreational activities; many of those students (and other staff) had disabilities themselves. While youths attended these activities, family members met to discuss benefits and issues related to the youths' self-determination. Youths also developed person-centered plans for identifying and achieving their goals. Parent advocates checked in with families to ensure they participated and met with the people who could address the youths' (or parents') needs. Services culminated with an offer of 7 weeks of summer employment through New York City's Summer Youth Employment Program or in an on-campus job.<sup><a href="#mn7" id="mt7">7</a></sup> For more information on the <abbr>CUNY</abbr> project, see Fraker and others (2011b).</p>
|
|
<h3>New York: Erie County Transition WORKS</h3>
|
|
<p>The Erie County project served youths aged <span class="nobr">16–25</span> who received either <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits in Erie County, New York (which includes the city of Buffalo). The Erie 1 Board of Cooperative Educational Services ran the project. They partnered with the Parent Network of Western New York, Neighborhood Legal Services, the Community Employment Office, and other agencies to provide services emphasizing self-empowerment. Youths were eligible for 18 months of services, with some employment supports available after that. Four hundred fifty-nine youths were randomized into the treatment group; 380 enrolled in services (83 percent). There were 384 youths in the control group. Random assignment occurred between January 2007 and March 2008, and services ended in the fall of 2009.</p>
|
|
<p>The Erie County service delivery schedule was very structured, with youths attending person-centered planning and self-determination workshops before receiving employment- or education-related services. The youths set short- and <span class="nobr">long-term</span> goals for themselves (with the help of a counselor) and created a transition plan to meet those goals. Youths were also trained to organize important documents related to their benefits in a binder, to which they could easily refer as needed. Job developers helped conduct formal vocational assessments to learn about the youths' interests, arrange for informal work experiences (such as job shadowing, <span class="nobr">job-site</span> tours, and mock interviews), and set up paid employment and internships when participants were ready. If youths were interested in continuing their education, transition coordinators helped them explore their options (for example, earning a high school equivalency degree or enrolling in college). For more information on the Erie County project, see Fraker and others (2011c).</p>
|
|
<h3>Maryland: Montgomery County <abbr class="spell">CTP</abbr></h3>
|
|
<p><abbr title="Sainte">St.</abbr> Luke's House, <abbr title="Incorporated">Inc.</abbr>, a local mental health provider, ran the <abbr class="spell">CTP</abbr>. This project served youths aged <span class="nobr">16–22</span> who either were in the last 2 years of high school or had left high school in the past 12 months. Unlike the other projects, the <abbr class="spell">CTP</abbr> served a subset of the overall <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> target: youths with severe emotional disturbances who might be eligible for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits. Roughly 12 percent of participants received either <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> at the time of random assignment. Treatment-group participants were eligible for up to 18 months of services plus 2 years of follow-up services. <abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr> randomized 422 youths into the treatment group, 374 of whom enrolled in services (89 percent); 383 youths were in the control group. Random assignment occurred between April 2008 and December 2010, and services ended in March 2012.</p>
|
|
<p>After enrolling in the <abbr class="spell">CTP</abbr>, youths received individualized services focused on employment, beginning with an interview with a career transition specialist to determine the areas in which they needed support to accomplish their goals. The career transition specialist would meet with each youth once a week to develop service needs and interim goals. The youths then received a variety of preemployment vocational assessments (such as mock interviews, work trials, or job shadowing) to prepare them for competitive employment. <abbr class="spell">CTP</abbr> staff worked directly with employers and community employment resources to help place youths in jobs. Concurrent with those employment services, staff provided benefits counseling, case management, referrals to social and health services, and family supports. For more information on the <abbr class="spell">CTP</abbr>, see Fraker and others (2012a).</p>
|
|
<h3>Florida: Miami-Dade County <abbr class="spell">BHBF</abbr></h3>
|
|
<p>Abilities, <abbr title="Incorporated">Inc.</abbr> of Florida (now ServiceSource) ran the <abbr class="spell">BHBF</abbr> project. They worked with <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries aged <span class="nobr">16–22.</span> Youths received up to 18 months of services, plus follow-up services as needed. <abbr class="spell">BHBF</abbr> enrolled 388 (84 percent) of the 460 youths randomized into the treatment group; 399 youths were in the control group. Random assignment occurred between April 2008 and September 2010, and services ended in March 2012.</p>
|
|
<p>As part of a strong benefits-counseling component, <abbr class="spell">BHBF</abbr> partnered with the Human Services Coalition and the National Disability Institute to provide financial literacy training along with many career preparation and placement services. The program included one-on-one and group services. For example, although youths developed individual plans for reaching their goals, <abbr class="spell">BHBF</abbr> also hosted job fairs to connect them with employers and provided work-based experiences, enabling youths to explore different jobs. For more information on <abbr class="spell">BHBF</abbr>, see Fraker and others (2012b).</p>
|
|
<h3>West Virginia Youth Works</h3>
|
|
<p>The Human Resources Development Foundation, Inc. ran the Youth Works project in 19 counties, where they provided up to 18 months of services to youths aged <span class="nobr">15–25</span> receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits. The project enrolled 388 (85 percent) of the 455 youths randomized in the treatment group; 397 youths were assigned to the control group. Random assignment occurred between March 2008 and September 2010, and services ended in March 2012.</p>
|
|
<p>Youth Works' services began with goal identification, in which youths received one-on-one benefits counseling and their interests were assessed. This culminated in a person-centered plan for future services and goals. Job placement activities followed to help improve youths' job search and “soft” skills. Youths were taught how to search for positions on their own, but were supported by customized employment specialists. Once working, the youths received job coaching and other employment supports. For more information on West Virginia Youth Works, see Fraker and others (2012c).</p>
|
|
<h2>Data and Methods</h2>
|
|
<p>The data for this study come from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records matched to the randomization and enrollment dates provided by <abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr>. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s Master Earnings File provides data on all earnings reported on an individual's <span class="nobr">W-2</span> tax record (including non-Federal Insurance Contribution Act taxable earnings). The Supplemental Security Record and the Master Beneficiary Record respectively contain the program participation histories for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries. Dates of death come from the Numerical Identification System (Numident) file, which contains <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s Death Master List.</p>
|
|
<p>The outcomes of interest in this study are earnings and <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments. Earnings include any income reported as wages or self-employment earnings on the Master Earnings File. Wage data are from <span class="nobr">W-2</span> records. If an individual worked more than one job in a given year, wage data from each <span class="nobr">W-2</span> are totaled to provide a single measure of annual earnings.</p>
|
|
<p>Total <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments represent the sum of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments due and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits paid. <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments due are those the recipient should have received in a month if he or she reported all earnings and exclusions in a timely manner and if work incentives (including the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waivers) were applied correctly. Using this measure smooths the payment stream for each recipient.<sup><a href="#mn8" id="mt8">8</a></sup> Smoothing the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment data is especially important given the potential complications arising from <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waiver implementation. Taking such a step is not as important for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>. There are relatively few <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries in this sample, and because they are generally not subject to a monthly earnings test, their monthly benefit amounts are much less likely to vary. Additionally, only one of the five program rule waivers applied to <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries, and it affected benefit receipt or nonreceipt, not the payment amount. Thus, actual <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits should not fluctuate to the extent that <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments do. Results based solely on payments made (for both <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>) are available upon request from the author.</p>
|
|
<p>As noted, <abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr> used random assignment to place individuals into treatment and control groups. Therefore, comparisons of the outcomes between the treatment and control groups are unbiased and measure the average impact we would expect to see in a program in which some individuals choose not to receive services for which they are eligible; that is, the results measure the intent-to-treat impact.<sup><a href="#mn9" id="mt9">9</a></sup> I do not use weights and the results do not control for any known differences in the characteristics of the two groups at the time of randomization.<sup><a href="#mn10" id="mt10">10</a></sup> All dollar values are adjusted to 2012 dollars using the Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers <span class="nobr">(<abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W).</span></p>
|
|
<p>The administrative records capture program participation on a monthly basis, so the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> results include all <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants who remain alive through the 24<sup>th</sup> month after random assignment. Although random assignment occurred irregularly over a <span class="nobr">2-year</span> period for each site, administrative earnings data are available only as calendar-year amounts. Therefore, I measure earnings in the first and second calendar years after random assignment. For example, if an individual was randomized in August 2009, the first and second years after random assignment are 2010 and 2011, respectively. For many participants, earnings in the second year represent those in their first year without program services. The few individuals who died over the course of this study are included in the analysis up to the month (for program participation) or year (for earnings) before death.</p>
|
|
<h2>Results</h2>
|
|
<p>This section presents the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project outcomes as of 24 months (for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> participation) and 2 years (for earnings) after participants were randomly assigned to treatment or control groups.</p>
|
|
<h3>Characteristics of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> Participants</h3>
|
|
<p>Table 2 shows the characteristics of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants. There were few statistically significant differences between the treatment and control groups, and those occurred only in the phase 1 sites. In <abbr>CUNY</abbr>, treatment-group youths were more likely than control-group youths to have mental disorders (other than intellectual disability) as their primary impairment, by 8.4 percentage points. In Erie County, treatment-group members were 7.4 percentage points more likely than control-group members to have nonintellectual disability mental disorders. Treatment-group youths in Colorado were 7.5 percentage points more likely to be male than control-group members; they were also 6.4 percentage points more likely to have an intellectual disability. There were no statistically significant differences in participant characteristics in the phase 2 sites.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table2">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 2. </span>Selected characteristics of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants, by site</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:22em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="7" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c2">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c3">Control group</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c4">Difference</th>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" id="c5"><i>p</i>-value</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2">Percent</th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c2">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c3">Percent</th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c3">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th id="c10" headers="c4">Percentage points</th>
|
|
<th id="c11" headers="c4">Standard error</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="7" class="panelWithSub" id="r1">Phase 1 sites</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="7" class="subWithPanel" id="r2" headers="r1">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r3" headers="r1 r2 c1">Male</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c2 c6">68.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c2 c7">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c3 c8">66.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c3 c9">2.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r3 c4 c10">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c4 c11">3.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c5">0.62</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r4" headers="r1 r2 c1">Disability</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r5" headers="r1 r2 r4 c1">Intellectual disability</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r5 c2 c6">25.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r5 c2 c7">2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r5 c3 c8">29.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r5 c3 c9">2.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r4 r5 c4 c10">-4.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r5 c4 c11">3.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r5 c5">0.15</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r1 r2 r4 c1">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r6 c2 c6">53.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r6 c2 c7">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r6 c3 c8">45.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r6 c3 c9">2.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r6 c4 c10">8.4***</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r6 c4 c11">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r6 c5">0.01</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r7" headers="r1 r2 r4 c1">Nervous system and other sensory disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r7 c2 c6">6.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r7 c2 c7">1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r7 c3 c8">8.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r7 c3 c9">1.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r4 r7 c4 c10">-2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r7 c4 c11">1.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r7 c5">0.24</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r8" headers="r1 r2 r4 c1">Other disabilities</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r8 c2 c6">14.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r8 c2 c7">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r8 c3 c8">16.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r8 c3 c9">1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r4 r8 c4 c10">-2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r8 c4 c11">2.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 r8 c5">0.42</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r9" headers="r1 r2 c1">Age at random assignment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r10" headers="r1 r2 r9 c1">15 or younger</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r10 c2 c6">15.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r10 c2 c7">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r10 c3 c8">19.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r10 c3 c9">2.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r9 r10 c4 c10">-3.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r10 c4 c11">2.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r10 c5">0.17</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r11" headers="r1 r2 r9 c1">16</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r11 c2 c6">44.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r11 c2 c7">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r11 c3 c8">40.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r11 c3 c9">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r9 r11 c4 c10">4.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r11 c4 c11">3.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r11 c5">0.24</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r1 r2 r9 c1">17</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r12 c2 c6">31.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r12 c2 c7">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r12 c3 c8">33.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r12 c3 c9">2.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r9 r12 c4 c10">-1.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r12 c4 c11">3.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r12 c5">0.63</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r13" headers="r1 r2 r9 c1">18 or older</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r13 c2 c6">7.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r13 c2 c7">1.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r13 c3 c8">6.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r13 c3 c9">1.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r9 r13 c4 c10">1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r13 c4 c11">1.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r9 r13 c5">0.52</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r14" headers="r1 r2 c1">Number</th>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r1 r2 r14 c2" colspan="2">492</td>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r1 r2 r14 c3" colspan="2">397</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r14 c4 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r14 c4 c11">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r14 c5">. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="7" class="subpanel" id="r15" headers="r1">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r16" headers="r1 r15 c1">Male</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r16 c2 c6">62.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r16 c2 c7">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r16 c3 c8">61.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r16 c3 c9">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r15 r16 c4 c10">0.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r16 c4 c11">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r16 c5">0.91</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r17" headers="r1 r15 c1">Disability</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r18" headers="r1 r15 r17 c1">Intellectual disability</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r18 c2 c6">36.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r18 c2 c7">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r18 c3 c8">38.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r18 c3 c9">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r15 r17 r18 c4 c10">-2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r18 c4 c11">3.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r18 c5">0.52</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r19" headers="r1 r15 r17 c1">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r19 c2 c6">39.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r19 c2 c7">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r19 c3 c8">31.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r19 c3 c9">2.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk" headers="r1 r15 r17 r19 c4 c10">7.4**</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r19 c4 c11">3.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r19 c5">0.02</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r20" headers="r1 r15 r17 c1">Nervous system and other sensory disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r20 c2 c6">8.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r20 c2 c7">1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r20 c3 c8">10.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r20 c3 c9">1.6</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r15 r17 r20 c4 c10">-2.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r20 c4 c11">2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r20 c5">0.24</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r21" headers="r1 r15 r17 c1">Other disabilities</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r21 c2 c6">16.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r21 c2 c7">1.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r21 c3 c8">19.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r21 c3 c9">2.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r15 r17 r21 c4 c10">-2.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r21 c4 c11">2.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r17 r21 c5">0.27</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r22" headers="r1 r15 c1">Age at random assignment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r23" headers="r1 r15 r22 c1">15 or younger</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r23 c2 c6">1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r23 c2 c7">0.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r23 c3 c8">1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r23 c3 c9">0.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r15 r22 r23 c4 c10">0.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r23 c4 c11">0.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r23 c5">0.72</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r24" headers="r1 r15 r22 c1">16</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r24 c2 c6">12.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r24 c2 c7">1.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r24 c3 c8">10.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r24 c3 c9">1.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r15 r22 r24 c4 c10">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r24 c4 c11">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r24 c5">0.30</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r25" headers="r1 r15 r22 c1">17</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r25 c2 c6">10.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r25 c2 c7">1.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r25 c3 c8">11.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r25 c3 c9">1.6</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r15 r22 r25 c4 c10">-1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r25 c4 c11">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r25 c5">0.56</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r26" headers="r1 r15 r22 c1">18 or older</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r26 c2 c6">75.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r26 c2 c7">2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r26 c3 c8">77.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r26 c3 c9">2.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r15 r22 r26 c4 c10">-1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r26 c4 c11">2.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r22 r26 c5">0.67</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r27" headers="r1 r15 c1">Number</th>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r1 r15 r27 c2" colspan="2">459</td>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r1 r15 r27 c3" colspan="2">384</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r15 r27 c4 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r27 c4 c11">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r15 r27 c5">. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="7" class="subpanel" id="r28" headers="r1">Colorado</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r29" headers="r1 r28 c1">Male</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r29 c2 c6">60.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r29 c2 c7">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r29 c3 c8">52.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r29 c3 c9">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk" headers="r1 r28 r29 c4 c10">7.5**</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r29 c4 c11">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r29 c5">0.03</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r30" headers="r1 r28 c1">Disability</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r31" headers="r1 r28 r30 c1">Intellectual disability</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r31 c2 c6">33.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r31 c2 c7">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r31 c3 c8">27.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r31 c3 c9">2.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk" headers="r1 r28 r30 r31 c4 c10">6.4**</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r31 c4 c11">3.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r31 c5">0.04</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r32" headers="r1 r28 r30 c1">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r32 c2 c6">30.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r32 c2 c7">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r32 c3 c8">34.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r32 c3 c9">2.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r28 r30 r32 c4 c10">-4.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r32 c4 c11">3.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r32 c5">0.16</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r33" headers="r1 r28 r30 c1">Nervous system and other sensory disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r33 c2 c6">17.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r33 c2 c7">1.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r33 c3 c8">17.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r33 c3 c9">1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r28 r30 r33 c4 c10">0.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r33 c4 c11">2.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r33 c5">0.86</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r34" headers="r1 r28 r30 c1">Other disabilities</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r34 c2 c6">18.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r34 c2 c7">1.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r34 c3 c8">20.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r34 c3 c9">2.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r28 r30 r34 c4 c10">-2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r34 c4 c11">2.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r30 r34 c5">0.40</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r35" headers="r1 r28 c1">Age at random assignment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r36" headers="r1 r28 r35 c1">15 or younger</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r36 c2 c6">10.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r36 c2 c7">1.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r36 c3 c8">10.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r36 c3 c9">1.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r28 r35 r36 c4 c10">-0.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r36 c4 c11">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r36 c5">0.99</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r37" headers="r1 r28 r35 c1">16</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r37 c2 c6">8.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r37 c2 c7">1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r37 c3 c8">7.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r37 c3 c9">1.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r28 r35 r37 c4 c10">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r37 c4 c11">1.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r37 c5">0.67</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r38" headers="r1 r28 r35 c1">17</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r38 c2 c6">5.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r38 c2 c7">1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r38 c3 c8">5.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r38 c3 c9">1.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r28 r35 r38 c4 c10">-0.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r38 c4 c11">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r38 c5">0.70</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r39" headers="r1 r28 r35 c1">18 or older</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r39 c2 c6">76.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r39 c2 c7">2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r39 c3 c8">76.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r39 c3 c9">2.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r28 r35 r39 c4 c10">-0.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r39 c4 c11">2.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r35 r39 c5">0.96</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r40" headers="r1 r28 c1">Number</th>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r1 r28 r40 c2" colspan="2">468</td>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r1 r28 r40 c3" colspan="2">387</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r28 r40 c4 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r40 c4 c11">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r28 r40 c5">. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="7" class="panelWithSub" id="r41">Phase 2 sites</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="7" class="subWithPanel" id="r42" headers="r41">Maryland</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r43" headers="r41 r42 c1">Male</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r43 c2 c6">67.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r43 c2 c7">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r43 c3 c8">66.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r43 c3 c9">2.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r43 c4 c10">1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r43 c4 c11">3.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r43 c5">0.73</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r44" headers="r41 r42 c1">Disability</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r45" headers="r41 r42 r44 c1">Intellectual disability</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r45 c2 c6">2.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r45 c2 c7">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r45 c3 c8">3.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r45 c3 c9">1.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r44 r45 c4 c10">-1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r45 c4 c11">1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r45 c5">0.40</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r46" headers="r41 r42 r44 c1">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r46 c2 c6">19.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r46 c2 c7">1.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r46 c3 c8">19.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r46 c3 c9">2.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r44 r46 c4 c10">-0.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r46 c4 c11">2.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r46 c5">0.89</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r47" headers="r41 r42 r44 c1">Nervous system and other sensory disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r47 c2 c6">1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r47 c2 c7">0.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r47 c3 c8">0.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r47 c3 c9">0.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r44 r47 c4 c10">0.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r47 c4 c11">0.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r47 c5">0.48</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r48" headers="r41 r42 r44 c1">Other disabilities</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r48 c2 c6">76.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r48 c2 c7">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r48 c3 c8">75.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r48 c3 c9">2.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r44 r48 c4 c10">1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r48 c4 c11">3.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r44 r48 c5">0.74</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r49" headers="r41 r42 c1">Age at random assignment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r50" headers="r41 r42 r49 c1">15 or younger</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r50 c2 c6">0.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r50 c2 c7">0.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r50 c3 c8">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r50 c3 c9">0.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r49 r50 c4 c10">-0.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r50 c4 c11">0.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r50 c5">0.58</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r51" headers="r41 r42 r49 c1">16</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r51 c2 c6">18.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r51 c2 c7">1.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r51 c3 c8">19.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r51 c3 c9">2.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r49 r51 c4 c10">-1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r51 c4 c11">2.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r51 c5">0.71</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r52" headers="r41 r42 r49 c1">17</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r52 c2 c6">27.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r52 c2 c7">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r52 c3 c8">26.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r52 c3 c9">2.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r49 r52 c4 c10">1.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r52 c4 c11">3.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r52 c5">0.70</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r53" headers="r41 r42 r49 c1">18 or older</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r53 c2 c6">53.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r53 c2 c7">2.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r53 c3 c8">53.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r53 c3 c9">2.6</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r49 r53 c4 c10">0.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r53 c4 c11">3.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r49 r53 c5">0.97</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r54" headers="r41 r42 c1">Number</th>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r41 r42 r54 c2" colspan="2">420</td>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r41 r42 r54 c3" colspan="2">382</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r42 r54 c4 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r54 c4 c11">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r42 r54 c5">. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="7" class="subpanel" id="r55" headers="r41">Florida</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r56" headers="r41 r55 c1">Male</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r56 c2 c6">58.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r56 c2 c7">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r56 c3 c8">61.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r56 c3 c9">2.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r56 c4 c10">-3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r56 c4 c11">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r56 c5">0.32</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r57" headers="r41 r55 c1">Disability</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r58" headers="r41 r55 r57 c1">Intellectual disability</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r58 c2 c6">32.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r58 c2 c7">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r58 c3 c8">34.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r58 c3 c9">2.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r57 r58 c4 c10">-2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r58 c4 c11">3.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r58 c5">0.54</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r59" headers="r41 r55 r57 c1">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r59 c2 c6">45.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r59 c2 c7">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r59 c3 c8">43.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r59 c3 c9">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r57 r59 c4 c10">2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r59 c4 c11">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r59 c5">0.55</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r60" headers="r41 r55 r57 c1">Nervous system and other sensory disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r60 c2 c6">9.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r60 c2 c7">1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r60 c3 c8">7.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r60 c3 c9">1.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r57 r60 c4 c10">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r60 c4 c11">1.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r60 c5">0.40</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r61" headers="r41 r55 r57 c1">Other disabilities</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r61 c2 c6">12.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r61 c2 c7">1.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r61 c3 c8">14.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r61 c3 c9">1.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r57 r61 c4 c10">-1.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r61 c4 c11">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r57 r61 c5">0.47</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r62" headers="r41 r55 c1">Age at random assignment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r63" headers="r41 r55 r62 c1">15 or younger</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r63 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r63 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r63 c3 c8">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r63 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r62 r63 c4 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r63 c4 c11">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r63 c5">. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r64" headers="r41 r55 r62 c1">16</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r64 c2 c6">4.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r64 c2 c7">0.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r64 c3 c8">4.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r64 c3 c9">1.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r62 r64 c4 c10">0.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r64 c4 c11">1.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r64 c5">0.93</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r65" headers="r41 r55 r62 c1">17</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r65 c2 c6">13.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r65 c2 c7">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r65 c3 c8">13.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r65 c3 c9">1.7</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r62 r65 c4 c10">-0.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r65 c4 c11">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r65 c5">0.92</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r66" headers="r41 r55 r62 c1">18 or older</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r66 c2 c6">82.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r66 c2 c7">1.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r66 c3 c8">82.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r66 c3 c9">1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r62 r66 c4 c10">0.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r66 c4 c11">2.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r62 r66 c5">0.96</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r67" headers="r41 r55 c1">Number</th>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r41 r55 r67 c2" colspan="2">460</td>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r41 r55 r67 c3" colspan="2">399</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r55 r67 c4 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r67 c4 c11">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r55 r67 c5">. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="7" class="subpanel" id="r68" headers="r41">West Virginia</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r69" headers="r41 r68 c1">Male</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r69 c2 c6">58.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r69 c2 c7">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r69 c3 c8">57.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r69 c3 c9">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r69 c4 c10">1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r69 c4 c11">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r69 c5">0.71</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r70" headers="r41 r68 c1">Disability</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r71" headers="r41 r68 r70 c1">Intellectual disability</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r71 c2 c6">31.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r71 c2 c7">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r71 c3 c8">30.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r71 c3 c9">2.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r70 r71 c4 c10">1.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r71 c4 c11">3.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r71 c5">0.70</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r72" headers="r41 r68 r70 c1">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r72 c2 c6">42.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r72 c2 c7">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r72 c3 c8">44.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r72 c3 c9">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r70 r72 c4 c10">-2.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r72 c4 c11">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r72 c5">0.40</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r73" headers="r41 r68 r70 c1">Nervous system and other sensory disorders</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r73 c2 c6">10.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r73 c2 c7">1.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r73 c3 c8">9.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r73 c3 c9">1.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r70 r73 c4 c10">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r73 c4 c11">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r73 c5">0.71</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r74" headers="r41 r68 r70 c1">Other disabilities</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r74 c2 c6">16.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r74 c2 c7">1.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r74 c3 c8">15.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r74 c3 c9">1.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r70 r74 c4 c10">0.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r74 c4 c11">2.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r70 r74 c5">0.73</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r75" headers="r41 r68 c1">Age at random assignment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r76" headers="r41 r68 r75 c1">15 or younger</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r76 c2 c6">0.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r76 c2 c7">0.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r76 c3 c8">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r76 c3 c9">0.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r75 r76 c4 c10">0.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r76 c4 c11">0.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r76 c5">0.84</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r77" headers="r41 r68 r75 c1">16</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r77 c2 c6">5.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r77 c2 c7">1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r77 c3 c8">6.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r77 c3 c9">1.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r75 r77 c4 c10">-1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r77 c4 c11">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r77 c5">0.52</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r78" headers="r41 r68 r75 c1">17</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r78 c2 c6">10.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r78 c2 c7">1.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r78 c3 c8">11.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r78 c3 c9">1.6</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r75 r78 c4 c10">-1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r78 c4 c11">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r78 c5">0.64</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r79" headers="r41 r68 r75 c1">18 or older</th>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r79 c2 c6">83.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r79 c2 c7">1.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r79 c3 c8">81.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r79 c3 c9">1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r75 r79 c4 c10">1.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r79 c4 c11">2.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r75 r79 c5">0.46</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r80" headers="r41 r68 c1">Number</th>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r41 r68 r80 c2" colspan="2">455</td>
|
|
<td class="center" headers="r41 r68 r80 c3" colspan="2">397</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r41 r68 r80 c4 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r80 c4 c11">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r41 r68 r80 c5">. . .</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="8">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="8">NOTES: Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
|
|
<div class="newNote"> . . . = not applicable.</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">* = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>Although the characteristics within each site were generally similar, differences between the sites are worth highlighting. Over <span class="nobr">three-fourths</span> of the Erie County and Colorado sites' youths were aged 18 or older at the time of enrollment, and over 80 percent of the Florida and West Virginia participants were 18 or older at enrollment. Conversely, only about 7 percent of the <abbr>CUNY</abbr> youths and just over <span class="nobr">one-half</span> of the Maryland youths were 18 or older. Over 40 percent of <abbr>CUNY</abbr>, Florida, and West Virginia participants had mental disorders other than intellectual disability. However, because many of the Maryland youths were not receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>, their disabilities are not identified in the administrative records, for which reason they are grouped in the “other disabilities” category. The different characteristics of the populations served (and the different program models) indicate the risk of comparing outcomes between one site and another.</p>
|
|
<h3><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Program Participation</h3>
|
|
<p>Because five of the six sites recruited participants from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program lists, it is not surprising that almost all youths in those five sites received either <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits in the month of random assignment (Table 3). At those sites, between 76.7 percent and 95.1 percent of participants were due an <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment, and at all six sites, <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt was more prevalent than <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> receipt. The shares of youths receiving <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits ranged from 2.6 percent to 25.6 percent, and many were auxiliary beneficiaries eligible for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits based on somebody else's earnings record, typically that of a parent. However, some youths received <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> primary (worker) benefits, particularly in the sites with older participants. In Colorado, for example, 10 percent of youths received <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> worker benefits (not shown; breakdowns for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> worker and auxiliary benefits are available upon request).</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table3">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 3. </span><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability program participation of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants in the month of random assignment, by site</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:14em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" scope="colgroup">Site and program</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Control group</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Difference</th>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" scope="colgroup"><i>p</i>-value</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percent</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percent</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percentage points</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>95.1</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
<td>89.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td>5.4***</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>3.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td>4.0</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.77</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>95.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.9</td>
|
|
<td>90.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td>5.4***</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>3.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td>3.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.82</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>89.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td>87.0</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.3</td>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.29</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>19.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>23.2</td>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-3.8</td>
|
|
<td>2.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.18</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>96.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td>94.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.9</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.16</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>12.0</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td>15.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-3.4</td>
|
|
<td>2.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.15</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>84.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td>85.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.6</td>
|
|
<td>2.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.52</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>23.5</td>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
<td>25.6</td>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-2.1</td>
|
|
<td>3.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.48</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>95.5</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
<td>95.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">0.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.91</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>12.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td>16.0</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-3.8</td>
|
|
<td>2.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.11</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>8.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td>14.1</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">-5.3**</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.02</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>3.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.9</td>
|
|
<td>2.6</td>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.34</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>11.9</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>15.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-3.8</td>
|
|
<td>2.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.12</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.61</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Florida</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>76.7</td>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
<td>79.2</td>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-2.5</td>
|
|
<td>2.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.39</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>11.1</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td>9.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.3</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>0.53</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>81.1</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>82.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.6</td>
|
|
<td>2.6</td>
|
|
<td>0.54</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>6.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>6.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">0.5</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.78</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>84.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td>82.9</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.0</td>
|
|
<td>2.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.44</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>22.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td>20.7</td>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.5</td>
|
|
<td>2.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.58</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>92.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>90.9</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td>0.33</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>14.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>12.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.7</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.47</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="8">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="8">NOTES: Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
|
|
<div class="newNote">* = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test)</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>The few youths not receiving any disability benefit in the month of random assignment either (a) were not receiving a check because of temporary overpayment issues or (b) had recently left the program after a <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> or <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination. The projects enrolled those youths because of the strong possibility they would return to <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> (although perhaps only after a successful appeal of the <abbr class="spell">CDR</abbr> or redetermination decision). In <abbr>CUNY</abbr>, nonrecipient youths were more prevalent in the control group, accounting for a 5.4 percentage point difference in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participation in the month of random assignment. Treatment-group youths were 5.3 percentage points less likely to receive <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> than the control group in Maryland. Recall that that site did not recruit from program records, instead primarily targeting youths deemed “at risk” of needing <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>.</p>
|
|
<p>In the <abbr>CUNY</abbr>, Erie County, Florida, and West Virginia sites, the treatment group was significantly more likely to receive <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments 24 months after random assignment than the control group (Table 4). In <abbr>CUNY</abbr>, the difference in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participation after 24 months was 10.9 percentage points and is highly significant. This difference is likely due to the use of program rule waivers; for example, the <abbr>CUNY</abbr> treatment-group youths were 3 to 10 percentage points more likely to use the various <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> work incentives (and their associated waivers) than control-group youths (Fraker and others 2011b).</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table4">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 4. </span><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability program participation of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants 24 months after random assignment, by site</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:14em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" scope="colgroup">Site and program</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Control group</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Difference</th>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" scope="colgroup"><i>p</i>-value</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percent</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percent</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percentage points</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>84.9</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>74.0</td>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>10.9***</td>
|
|
<td>2.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td>3.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.17</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>85.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>74.3</td>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>11.0***</td>
|
|
<td>2.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
<td>3.6</td>
|
|
<td>0.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.1</td>
|
|
<td>0.11</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Died</th>
|
|
<td>0.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.11</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>80.5</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td>74.3</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">6.3**</td>
|
|
<td>2.9</td>
|
|
<td>0.03</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>20.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td>22.3</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.5</td>
|
|
<td>2.9</td>
|
|
<td>0.60</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>89.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td>83.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">5.9*</td>
|
|
<td>2.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.01</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>11.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td>12.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.1</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.62</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Died</th>
|
|
<td>0.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">-1.4**</td>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.05</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>81.0</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>78.1</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.9</td>
|
|
<td>2.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.30</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>25.3</td>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
<td>26.6</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.3</td>
|
|
<td>3.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.67</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>92.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>90.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td>0.23</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>13.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>14.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.7</td>
|
|
<td>2.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.76</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Died</th>
|
|
<td>1.1</td>
|
|
<td>0.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">0.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.66</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>17.0</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>18.1</td>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.0</td>
|
|
<td>2.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.70</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>4.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
<td>3.9</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">0.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.66</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>20.4</td>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
<td>20.4</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.0</td>
|
|
<td>2.9</td>
|
|
<td>0.99</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.5</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.65</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Died</th>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">0.7*</td>
|
|
<td>0.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.10</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Florida</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>72.8</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>61.2</td>
|
|
<td>2.5</td>
|
|
<td>11.7***</td>
|
|
<td>3.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>14.1</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>11.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.7</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.24</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>77.5</td>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
<td>66.8</td>
|
|
<td>2.4</td>
|
|
<td>10.7***</td>
|
|
<td>3.1</td>
|
|
<td>0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>9.5</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td>5.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">3.7**</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.05</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Died</th>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">0.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.74</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td colspan="7"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>79.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td>70.7</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td>8.7***</td>
|
|
<td>3.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>27.0</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>23.0</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">4.0</td>
|
|
<td>3.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.18</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Either</th>
|
|
<td>89.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td>80.1</td>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
<td>9.3***</td>
|
|
<td>2.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Both</th>
|
|
<td>17.0</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>13.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">3.4</td>
|
|
<td>2.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.17</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Died</th>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td>0.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.3</td>
|
|
<td>0.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">0.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.5</td>
|
|
<td>0.39</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="8">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="8">NOTES: Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
|
|
<div class="newNote">* = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test)</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>Looking only at the <span class="nobr">24-month</span> outcomes, however, masks program participation patterns. For example, although the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt rate fell by 10.2 percentage points 24 months after random assignment for <abbr>CUNY</abbr> treatment-group youths, the drop was relatively greater for the control group (15.7 percentage points). Chart 2 illustrates the changes in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefit receipt at random assignment and after 24 months (from Tables 3 and 4). In five of the six sites, the difference between the proportions of treatment- and control-group youths receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments is greater at 24 months. Again, this can be explained by the use of program waivers that maintained youths' <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> eligibility (Maryland, the exception, did not draw its participants from the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program rolls). For three sites, the difference between the treatment and control groups in the proportion of youths receiving <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits decreased over time. In the <abbr>CUNY</abbr>, Florida, and West Virginia sites, however, the differences increased. As noted in Fraker (2013) and discussed later in this article, the Florida and West Virginia sites in particular reported large employment impacts, which may have enabled youths there to earn enough quarters of coverage to qualify for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits.<sup><a href="#mn11" id="mt11">11</a>,<a href="#mn12" id="mt12">12</a></sup></p>
|
|
<div class="chartCenter">
|
|
<div class="chart700" id="chart2">
|
|
<div class="title">Chart 2.<br>Percentage point differences in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> participation rates between <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> treatment groups and control groups in the month of random assignment and after 24 months, by project site</div>
|
|
<div class="scrollChart"><img src="v74n1p1-chart02.gif" alt="Two bar charts with tabular version below." width="675" height="727" /></div>
|
|
<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 2. </span>Percentage point differences in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> participation rates between <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> treatment groups and control groups in the month of random assignment and after 24 months, by project site</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:12em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:10em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Project site</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Month of random assignment</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">After 24 months</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="panel" scope="rowgroup"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participation rates</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>5.4***</td>
|
|
<td>10.9***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">6.3**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.6</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">-5.3**</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Florida</th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-2.5</td>
|
|
<td>11.7***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.0</td>
|
|
<td>8.7***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="panel" scope="rowgroup"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> participation rates</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-3.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-2.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">0.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Florida</th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">4.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="noNotes" colspan="3"> </td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="firstNote">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</div>
|
|
<div class="note">NOTES: Each value reflects the treatment-group percentage minus the control-group percentage at the given site and time.</div>
|
|
<div class="note">* = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="note">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="lastNote">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<h3>Earnings</h3>
|
|
<p>In the first year after random assignment, only the <abbr>CUNY</abbr>, Florida, and West Virginia sites had statistically significant impacts on the prevalence of earners (Table 5).<sup><a href="#mn13" id="mt13">13</a></sup> Over 48 percent of <abbr>CUNY</abbr> treatment-group youths had earnings, compared with only 23.9 percent of control-group youths. <abbr>CUNY</abbr> guaranteed a paid summer job for any treatment-group youth who wanted one, so that finding may reflect a program offering unique to the <abbr>CUNY</abbr> site more than the outcome of an intervention. In Florida, 29.8 percent of the treatment-group youths had earnings, compared with 23.6 percent of control-group youths. In West Virginia, 44.0 percent of treatment-group youths had earnings, compared with 28.0 percent of control-group youths. In Maryland, although the result is not statistically significant, 58.8 percent of treatment-group youths had earnings, compared with 55.0 percent of the control group. Recall that the Maryland project served fewer youths receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments than the other sites; that site was also located in a service-rich area. Those factors likely contribute to the absence of a statistically significant result. All of these results are similar to those given in the <span class="nobr">12-month</span> interim reports.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table5">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 5. </span>Earnings of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants 1 year and 2 years after random assignment, by site</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:24em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="10" style="width:4em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Earnings characteristic and site</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c2">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c3">Control group</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" id="c4">Difference</th>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" id="c5"><i>p</i>-value</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c2">Percent</th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c2">Dollars</th>
|
|
<th id="c8" headers="c2">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th id="c9" headers="c3">Percent</th>
|
|
<th id="c10" headers="c3">Dollars</th>
|
|
<th id="c11" headers="c3">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th id="c12" headers="c4">Percentage points</th>
|
|
<th id="c13" headers="c4">Dollars</th>
|
|
<th id="c14" headers="c4">Standard error</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="10" class="panel" id="r1">1 year after random assignment</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r2" headers="r1 c1">Participants with any earnings (%)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r3" headers="r1 r2 c1">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c2 c6">48.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c2 c8">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c3 c9">23.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c3 c11">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c4 c12">24.4***</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r3 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c4 c14">3.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r3 c5">0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r4" headers="r1 r2 c1">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 c2 c6">44.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 c2 c8">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 c3 c9">40.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 c3 c11">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r4 c4 c12">3.6</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r4 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 c4 c14">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r4 c5">0.29</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r5" headers="r1 r2 c1">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r5 c2 c6">39.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r5 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r5 c2 c8">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r5 c3 c9">36.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r5 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r5 c3 c11">2.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r5 c4 c12">3.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r5 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r5 c4 c14">3.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r5 c5">0.36</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r1 r2 c1">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r6 c2 c6">58.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r6 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r6 c2 c8">2.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r6 c3 c9">55.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r6 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r6 c3 c11">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r6 c4 c12">3.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r6 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r6 c4 c14">3.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r6 c5">0.27</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r7" headers="r1 r2 c1">Florida</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r7 c2 c6">29.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r7 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r7 c2 c8">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r7 c3 c9">23.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r7 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r7 c3 c11">2.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk" headers="r1 r2 r7 c4 c12">6.2**</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r7 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r7 c4 c14">3.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r7 c5">0.04</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r8" headers="r1 r2 c1">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r8 c2 c6">44.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r8 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r8 c2 c8">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r8 c3 c9">28.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r8 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r8 c3 c11">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r8 c4 c12">16.0***</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r2 r8 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r8 c4 c14">3.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 r8 c5">0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r9" headers="r1 c1">Earnings among all participants ($)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r10" headers="r1 r9 c1">New York: CUNY</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r10 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r10 c2 c7">714</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r10 c2 c8">54</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r10 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r10 c3 c10">566</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r10 c3 c11">94</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r10 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r10 c4 c13">148</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r10 c4 c14">104</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r10 c5">0.15</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r11" headers="r1 r9 c1">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r11 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r11 c2 c7">1,788</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r11 c2 c8">214</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r11 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r11 c3 c10">1,684</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r11 c3 c11">210</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r11 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r11 c4 c13">104</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r11 c4 c14">303</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r11 c5">0.73</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r1 r9 c1">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r12 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r12 c2 c7">1,738</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r12 c2 c8">189</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r12 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r12 c3 c10">1,536</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r12 c3 c11">190</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r12 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r12 c4 c13">202</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r12 c4 c14">271</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r12 c5">0.46</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r13" headers="r1 r9 c1">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r13 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r13 c2 c7">2,808</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r13 c2 c8">274</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r13 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r13 c3 c10">2,465</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r13 c3 c11">214</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r13 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r13 c4 c13">343</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r13 c4 c14">352</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r13 c5">0.33</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r14" headers="r1 r9 c1">Florida</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r14 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r14 c2 c7">1,503</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r14 c2 c8">179</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r14 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r14 c3 c10">1,161</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r14 c3 c11">152</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r14 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r14 c4 c13">342</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r14 c4 c14">239</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r14 c5">0.15</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r15" headers="r1 r9 c1">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r15 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r15 c2 c7">1,776</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r15 c2 c8">186</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r15 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r15 c3 c10">1,392</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r15 c3 c11">187</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r15 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r9 r15 c4 c13">384</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r15 c4 c14">265</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 r15 c5">0.15</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r16" headers="r1 c1">Earnings among participants with any earnings ($)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r17" headers="r1 r16 c1">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r17 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r17 c2 c7">1,477</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r17 c2 c8">88</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r17 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r17 c3 c10">2,361</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r17 c3 c11">331</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r17 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r17 c4 c13">-885***</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r17 c4 c14">251</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r17 c5">0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r18" headers="r1 r16 c1">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r18 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r18 c2 c7">4,044</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r18 c2 c8">435</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r18 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r18 c3 c10">4,124</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r18 c3 c11">447</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r18 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r18 c4 c13">-80</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r18 c4 c14">632</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r18 c5">0.90</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r19" headers="r1 r16 c1">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r19 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r19 c2 c7">4,364</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r19 c2 c8">406</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r19 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r19 c3 c10">4,187</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r19 c3 c11">438</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r19 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r19 c4 c13">177</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r19 c4 c14">602</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r19 c5">0.77</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r20" headers="r1 r16 c1">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r20 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r20 c2 c7">4,764</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r20 c2 c8">423</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r20 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r20 c3 c10">4,485</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r20 c3 c11">329</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r20 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r20 c4 c13">279</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r20 c4 c14">550</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r20 c5">0.61</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r21" headers="r1 r16 c1">Florida</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r21 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r21 c2 c7">5,026</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r21 c2 c8">480</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r21 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r21 c3 c10">4,927</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r21 c3 c11">470</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r21 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r21 c4 c13">98</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r21 c4 c14">699</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r21 c5">0.89</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r22" headers="r1 r16 c1">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r22 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r22 c2 c7">4,040</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r22 c2 c8">365</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r22 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r22 c3 c10">4,978</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r22 c3 c11">538</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r22 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r16 r22 c4 c13">-937</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r22 c4 c14">633</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r16 r22 c5">0.14</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r23" headers="r1 c1">Participants with earnings exceeding <abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr> (%)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r24" headers="r1 r23 c1">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r24 c2 c6">0.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r24 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r24 c2 c8">0.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r24 c3 c9">0.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r24 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r24 c3 c11">0.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r24 c4 c12">-0.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r24 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r24 c4 c14">0.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r24 c5">0.11</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r25" headers="r1 r23 c1">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r25 c2 c6">3.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r25 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r25 c2 c8">0.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r25 c3 c9">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r25 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r25 c3 c11">0.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r25 c4 c12">0.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r25 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r25 c4 c14">1.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r25 c5">0.95</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r26" headers="r1 r23 c1">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r26 c2 c6">3.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r26 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r26 c2 c8">0.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r26 c3 c9">3.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r26 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r26 c3 c11">0.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r26 c4 c12">0.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r26 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r26 c4 c14">1.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r26 c5">0.66</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r27" headers="r1 r23 c1">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r27 c2 c6">5.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r27 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r27 c2 c8">1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r27 c3 c9">4.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r27 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r27 c3 c11">1.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r27 c4 c12">0.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r27 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r27 c4 c14">1.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r27 c5">0.73</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r28" headers="r1 r23 c1">Florida</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r28 c2 c6">3.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r28 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r28 c2 c8">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r28 c3 c9">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r28 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r28 c3 c11">0.7</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r28 c4 c12">1.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r28 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r28 c4 c14">1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r28 c5">0.37</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r29" headers="r1 r23 c1">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r29 c2 c6">2.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r29 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r29 c2 c8">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r29 c3 c9">2.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r29 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r29 c3 c11">0.8</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r29 c4 c12">0.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r1 r23 r29 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r29 c4 c14">1.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r23 r29 c5">0.76</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="10" class="panel" id="r30">2 years after random assignment</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r31" headers="r30 c1">Participants with any earnings (%)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r32" headers="r30 r31 c1">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r32 c2 c6">35.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r32 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r32 c2 c8">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r32 c3 c9">29.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r32 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r32 c3 c11">2.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk" headers="r30 r31 r32 c4 c12">6.4**</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r32 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r32 c4 c14">3.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r32 c5">0.04</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r33" headers="r30 r31 c1">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r33 c2 c6">38.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r33 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r33 c2 c8">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r33 c3 c9">36.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r33 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r33 c3 c11">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r33 c4 c12">1.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r33 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r33 c4 c14">3.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r33 c5">0.67</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r34" headers="r30 r31 c1">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r34 c2 c6">44.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r34 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r34 c2 c8">2.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r34 c3 c9">34.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r34 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r34 c3 c11">2.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r34 c4 c12">9.3*</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r34 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r34 c4 c14">3.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r34 c5">0.01</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r35" headers="r30 r31 c1">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r35 c2 c6">37.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r35 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r35 c2 c8">2.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r35 c3 c9">36.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r35 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r35 c3 c11">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r35 c4 c12">0.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r35 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r35 c4 c14">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r35 c5">0.89</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r36" headers="r30 r31 c1">Florida</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r36 c2 c6">27.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r36 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r36 c2 c8">2.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r36 c3 c9">23.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r36 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r36 c3 c11">2.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r36 c4 c12">4.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r36 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r36 c4 c14">3.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r36 c5">0.13</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r37" headers="r30 r31 c1">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r37 c2 c6">22.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r37 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r37 c2 c8">2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r37 c3 c9">14.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r37 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r37 c3 c11">1.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r37 c4 c12">8.0***</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r31 r37 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r37 c4 c14">2.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r31 r37 c5">0.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r38" headers="r30 c1">Earnings among all participants ($)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r39" headers="r30 r38 c1">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r39 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r39 c2 c7">974</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r39 c2 c8">120</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r39 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r39 c3 c10">1,003</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r39 c3 c11">145</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r39 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r39 c4 c13">-29</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r39 c4 c14">187</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r39 c5">0.88</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r40" headers="r30 r38 c1">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r40 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r40 c2 c7">2,177</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r40 c2 c8">254</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r40 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r40 c3 c10">1,817</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r40 c3 c11">224</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r40 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r40 c4 c13">361</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r40 c4 c14">346</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r40 c5">0.30</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r41" headers="r30 r38 c1">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r41 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r41 c2 c7">2,047</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r41 c2 c8">225</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r41 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r41 c3 c10">1,643</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r41 c3 c11">208</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r41 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r41 c4 c13">404</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r41 c4 c14">312</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r41 c5">0.20</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r42" headers="r30 r38 c1">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r42 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r42 c2 c7">3,729</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r42 c2 c8">366</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r42 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r42 c3 c10">3,761</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r42 c3 c11">394</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r42 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r42 c4 c13">-32</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r42 c4 c14">537</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r42 c5">0.95</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r43" headers="r30 r38 c1">Florida</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r43 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r43 c2 c7">2,050</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r43 c2 c8">242</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r43 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r43 c3 c10">1,580</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r43 c3 c11">201</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r43 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r43 c4 c13">470</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r43 c4 c14">320</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r43 c5">0.14</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r44" headers="r30 r38 c1">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r44 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r44 c2 c7">1,858</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r44 c2 c8">241</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r44 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r44 c3 c10">1,789</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r44 c3 c11">384</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r44 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r38 r44 c4 c13">69</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r44 c4 c14">441</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r38 r44 c5">0.88</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r45" headers="r30 c1">Earnings among participants with any earnings ($)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r46" headers="r30 r45 c1">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r46 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r46 c2 c7">2,748</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r46 c2 c8">295</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r46 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r46 c3 c10">3,427</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r46 c3 c11">418</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r46 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r46 c4 c13">-679</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r46 c4 c14">497</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r46 c5">0.17</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r47" headers="r30 r45 c1">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r47 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r47 c2 c7">5,686</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r47 c2 c8">573</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r47 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r47 c3 c10">4,883</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r47 c3 c11">507</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r47 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r47 c4 c13">803</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r47 c4 c14">784</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r47 c5">0.31</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r48" headers="r30 r45 c1">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r48 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r48 c2 c7">4,599</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r48 c2 c8">447</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r48 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r48 c3 c10">4,698</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r48 c3 c11">500</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r48 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r48 c4 c13">-100</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r48 c4 c14">685</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r48 c5">0.88</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r49" headers="r30 r45 c1">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r49 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r49 c2 c7">5,985</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r49 c2 c8">510</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r49 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r49 c3 c10">6,081</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r49 c3 c11">553</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r49 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r49 c4 c13">-96</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r49 c4 c14">751</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r49 c5">0.90</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r50" headers="r30 r45 c1">Florida</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r50 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r50 c2 c7">6,006</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r50 c2 c8">566</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r50 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r50 c3 c10">5,538</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r50 c3 c11">510</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r50 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r50 c4 c13">468</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r50 c4 c14">793</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r50 c5">0.56</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r51" headers="r30 r45 c1">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r51 c2 c6">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r51 c2 c7">4,805</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r51 c2 c8">505</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r51 c3 c9">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r51 c3 c10">6,943</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r51 c3 c11">1,278</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r51 c4 c12">. . .</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks" headers="r30 r45 r51 c4 c13"><span class="nobr">-2,138*</span></td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r51 c4 c14">1,172</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r45 r51 c5">0.07</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r52" headers="r30 c1">Participants with earnings exceeding <abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr> (%)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r53" headers="r30 r52 c1">New York: <abbr>CUNY</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r53 c2 c6">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r53 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r53 c2 c8">0.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r53 c3 c9">2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r53 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r53 c3 c11">0.7</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r53 c4 c12">0.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r53 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r53 c4 c14">1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r53 c5">0.83</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r54" headers="r30 r52 c1">New York: Erie County</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r54 c2 c6">4.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r54 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r54 c2 c8">1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r54 c3 c9">4.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r54 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r54 c3 c11">1.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r54 c4 c12">-0.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r54 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r54 c4 c14">1.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r54 c5">0.92</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r55" headers="r30 r52 c1">Colorado</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r55 c2 c6">4.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r55 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r55 c2 c8">1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r55 c3 c9">4.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r55 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r55 c3 c11">1.0</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r55 c4 c12">0.3</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r55 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r55 c4 c14">1.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r55 c5">0.82</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r56" headers="r30 r52 c1">Maryland</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r56 c2 c6">9.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r56 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r56 c2 c8">1.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r56 c3 c9">7.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r56 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r56 c3 c11">1.7</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r56 c4 c12">2.5</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r56 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r56 c4 c14">2.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r56 c5">0.34</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r57" headers="r30 r52 c1">Florida</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r57 c2 c6">5.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r57 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r57 c2 c8">1.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r57 c3 c9">4.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r57 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r57 c3 c11">1.1</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r57 c4 c12">1.9</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r57 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r57 c4 c14">1.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r57 c5">0.25</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r58" headers="r30 r52 c1">West Virginia</th>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r58 c2 c6">2.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r58 c2 c7">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r58 c2 c8">1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r58 c3 c9">4.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r58 c3 c10">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r58 c3 c11">1.4</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r58 c4 c12">-2.2</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks" headers="r30 r52 r58 c4 c13">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r58 c4 c14">1.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r30 r52 r58 c5">0.19</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="11">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="11">NOTES: Earnings are shown in 2012 dollars.
|
|
<div class="newNote">Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote"><abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr> = substantial gainful activity; . . . = not applicable.</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">* = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test)</div>
|
|
<div class="newNote">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>Two years after random assignment, both <abbr>CUNY</abbr> and West Virginia treatment-group youths continued to be more likely to have earnings than their control-group peers; in addition, Colorado treatment-group youths increased their labor force participation in the second year and were also more likely to have earnings than their control-group peers. The sustained impact of <abbr>CUNY</abbr> is somewhat surprising because the first-year impacts were thought to be partly due to the guaranteed employment experience. In all sites except Colorado, fewer treatment-group youths had earnings 2 years after random assignment than did after 1 year.</p>
|
|
<p>There was no significant difference in mean earnings or in the percentage of participants with earnings that exceeded the level identified by <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> as representing substantial gainful activity (<abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr>) in either the first or second year after random assignment for any site.<sup><a href="#mn14" id="mt14">14</a></sup> For differences in mean earnings, when looking only at participants with earnings, two results are statistically significant: <abbr>CUNY</abbr> after 1 year and West Virginia after 2 years. Surprisingly, both of those impacts are negative, indicating that the projects reduced the average earnings of the treatment groups. This outcome suggests that the projects may draw more “marginal” workers into the labor force; those workers would be expected to have low earnings, thus lowering the average for all those with earnings.<sup><a href="#mn15" id="mt15">15</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>To explore this hypothesis further, I looked at the earnings distributions of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> youths in five earnings categories: $0; <span class="nobr">$1–$250;</span> <span class="nobr">$251–$1,000;</span> <span class="nobr">$1,001–$5,000;</span> and over $5,000. Those results, available upon request, show that <abbr>CUNY</abbr> and West Virginia appear to have shifted workers out of the $0 group and primarily into the <span class="nobr">$1,001–$5,000</span> group in both years after random assignment. Similarly, Colorado (which had a significant impact on any earnings but an insignificant negative impact on average earnings of those with earnings in the second year) also appears to have shifted youths into the higher earnings categories in the second year. The other sites did not have statistically significant differences in the earnings distributions of the treatment and control groups.</p>
|
|
<h3><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Program Payments</h3>
|
|
<p>As Tables 3 and 4 show, fewer treatment-group youths left the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program than did control-group youths. Treatment-group youths may also have retained higher <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments because they were eligible for special waivers that allowed them to keep more of their earnings and stay on a disability program longer than normal program rules allow. Specifically, the waivers exempted treatment-group youths from program payment reductions that were due to earnings—reductions to which control-group youths, under the normal program rules, remained subject.</p>
|
|
<p>Charts <span class="nobr">3–8</span> show the average <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments for the treatment and control groups for the 12 months before and the 24 months after random assignment, as well as for the month of random assignment itself (which is designated as month 0).<sup><a href="#mn16" id="mt16">16</a></sup> The vertical bars indicate months in which the difference is statistically significant.</p>
|
|
<div class="chartCenter">
|
|
<div class="chart700" id="chart3">
|
|
<div class="title">Chart 3.<br>CUNY participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</div>
|
|
<div class="scrollChart"><img src="v74n1p1-chart03.gif" alt="Line chart with tabular version below." width="695" height="281" /></div>
|
|
<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 3. </span><abbr>CUNY</abbr> participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="3" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Month</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Control group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Difference</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-12</th>
|
|
<td>610.01</td>
|
|
<td>606.17</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">3.84</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-11</th>
|
|
<td>618.21</td>
|
|
<td>605.61</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">12.60</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-10</th>
|
|
<td>618.12</td>
|
|
<td>606.47</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">11.66</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-9</th>
|
|
<td>623.61</td>
|
|
<td>609.70</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">13.92</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-8</th>
|
|
<td>619.33</td>
|
|
<td>601.82</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">17.51</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-7</th>
|
|
<td>619.26</td>
|
|
<td>596.98</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">22.28</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-6</th>
|
|
<td>629.29</td>
|
|
<td>598.29</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">31.00**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-5</th>
|
|
<td>627.70</td>
|
|
<td>594.68</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">33.02**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-4</th>
|
|
<td>628.49</td>
|
|
<td>593.74</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">34.76**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-3</th>
|
|
<td>629.39</td>
|
|
<td>592.29</td>
|
|
<td>37.11***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-2</th>
|
|
<td>627.82</td>
|
|
<td>586.68</td>
|
|
<td>41.14***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-1</th>
|
|
<td>625.24</td>
|
|
<td>577.76</td>
|
|
<td>47.48***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">0</th>
|
|
<td>625.77</td>
|
|
<td>575.70</td>
|
|
<td>50.07***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1</th>
|
|
<td>615.35</td>
|
|
<td>567.85</td>
|
|
<td>47.50***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2</th>
|
|
<td>617.55</td>
|
|
<td>569.93</td>
|
|
<td>47.62***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">3</th>
|
|
<td>616.07</td>
|
|
<td>581.95</td>
|
|
<td>34.12**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">4</th>
|
|
<td>616.56</td>
|
|
<td>581.55</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">35.00**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">5</th>
|
|
<td>620.35</td>
|
|
<td>589.01</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">31.34**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">6</th>
|
|
<td>615.38</td>
|
|
<td>574.72</td>
|
|
<td>40.67***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">7</th>
|
|
<td>621.39</td>
|
|
<td>589.92</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">31.46**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">8</th>
|
|
<td>627.51</td>
|
|
<td>588.83</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">38.68**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">9</th>
|
|
<td>624.71</td>
|
|
<td>581.39</td>
|
|
<td>43.32***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">10</th>
|
|
<td>620.47</td>
|
|
<td>580.82</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">39.65**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">11</th>
|
|
<td>620.36</td>
|
|
<td>576.15</td>
|
|
<td>44.21***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">12</th>
|
|
<td>617.10</td>
|
|
<td>577.85</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">39.26**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">13</th>
|
|
<td>613.73</td>
|
|
<td>574.32</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">39.41**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">14</th>
|
|
<td>612.77</td>
|
|
<td>571.46</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">41.32**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">15</th>
|
|
<td>624.93</td>
|
|
<td>563.77</td>
|
|
<td>61.16***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">16</th>
|
|
<td>628.90</td>
|
|
<td>563.53</td>
|
|
<td>65.37***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">17</th>
|
|
<td>629.28</td>
|
|
<td>571.71</td>
|
|
<td>57.57***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">18</th>
|
|
<td>627.30</td>
|
|
<td>572.92</td>
|
|
<td>54.38***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">19</th>
|
|
<td>616.45</td>
|
|
<td>566.42</td>
|
|
<td>50.03***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">20</th>
|
|
<td>616.67</td>
|
|
<td>559.97</td>
|
|
<td>56.71***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">21</th>
|
|
<td>600.12</td>
|
|
<td>541.30</td>
|
|
<td>58.82***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">22</th>
|
|
<td>593.98</td>
|
|
<td>521.55</td>
|
|
<td>72.43***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">23</th>
|
|
<td>593.18</td>
|
|
<td>512.70</td>
|
|
<td>80.47***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">24</th>
|
|
<td>590.71</td>
|
|
<td>506.38</td>
|
|
<td>84.34***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="4">NOTES: * = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="4">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test: months -6, -5, -4, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, and 14).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="4">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test: months -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 6, 9, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="firstNote">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</div>
|
|
<div class="note">NOTES: Payments are adjusted to 2012 dollars using the <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W.</span></div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-10-level.gif" alt="thin, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-5-level.gif" alt="wider, dark gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test: months -6, -5, -4, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, and 14).</div>
|
|
<div class="lastNote"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-1-level.gif" alt="widest, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test: months -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 6, 9, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, <br>  23, and 24).</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="chartCenter">
|
|
<div class="chart700" id="chart4">
|
|
<div class="title">Chart 4.<br>Erie County participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</div>
|
|
<div class="scrollChart"><img src="v74n1p1-chart04.gif" alt="Line chart with tabular version below." width="695" height="281" /></div>
|
|
<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 4. </span>Erie County participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="3" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Month</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Control group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Difference</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-12</th>
|
|
<td>629.25</td>
|
|
<td>622.21</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">7.04</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-11</th>
|
|
<td>628.40</td>
|
|
<td>618.52</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">9.87</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-10</th>
|
|
<td>635.14</td>
|
|
<td>630.20</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">4.94</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-9</th>
|
|
<td>632.19</td>
|
|
<td>629.00</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">3.20</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-8</th>
|
|
<td>629.80</td>
|
|
<td>632.78</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-2.98</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-7</th>
|
|
<td>629.73</td>
|
|
<td>645.74</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-16.02</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-6</th>
|
|
<td>633.23</td>
|
|
<td>647.60</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-14.37</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-5</th>
|
|
<td>641.13</td>
|
|
<td>642.20</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.08</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-4</th>
|
|
<td>646.37</td>
|
|
<td>642.44</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">3.94</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-3</th>
|
|
<td>647.49</td>
|
|
<td>644.42</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">3.08</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-2</th>
|
|
<td>647.49</td>
|
|
<td>645.78</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.71</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-1</th>
|
|
<td>654.41</td>
|
|
<td>638.92</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">15.49</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">0</th>
|
|
<td>653.33</td>
|
|
<td>645.04</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">8.28</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1</th>
|
|
<td>650.89</td>
|
|
<td>647.50</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">3.39</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2</th>
|
|
<td>651.00</td>
|
|
<td>639.81</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">11.19</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">3</th>
|
|
<td>643.06</td>
|
|
<td>626.21</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">16.85</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">4</th>
|
|
<td>646.58</td>
|
|
<td>620.62</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">25.96</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">5</th>
|
|
<td>641.82</td>
|
|
<td>622.43</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">19.39</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">6</th>
|
|
<td>637.08</td>
|
|
<td>625.21</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">11.87</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">7</th>
|
|
<td>638.19</td>
|
|
<td>623.47</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">14.72</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">8</th>
|
|
<td>629.34</td>
|
|
<td>621.12</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">8.22</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">9</th>
|
|
<td>638.47</td>
|
|
<td>612.45</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">26.02</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">10</th>
|
|
<td>634.09</td>
|
|
<td>611.01</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">23.08</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">11</th>
|
|
<td>643.15</td>
|
|
<td>613.49</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">29.66</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">12</th>
|
|
<td>636.00</td>
|
|
<td>606.68</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">29.32</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">13</th>
|
|
<td>645.01</td>
|
|
<td>624.11</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">20.90</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">14</th>
|
|
<td>647.46</td>
|
|
<td>615.25</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">32.21</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">15</th>
|
|
<td>641.28</td>
|
|
<td>606.34</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">34.94*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">16</th>
|
|
<td>649.54</td>
|
|
<td>624.31</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">25.22</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">17</th>
|
|
<td>650.60</td>
|
|
<td>614.18</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">36.42*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">18</th>
|
|
<td>662.90</td>
|
|
<td>624.94</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">37.96*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">19</th>
|
|
<td>663.84</td>
|
|
<td>598.16</td>
|
|
<td>65.68***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">20</th>
|
|
<td>667.79</td>
|
|
<td>616.20</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">51.59**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">21</th>
|
|
<td>668.46</td>
|
|
<td>624.89</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">43.57**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">22</th>
|
|
<td>675.16</td>
|
|
<td>619.77</td>
|
|
<td>55.39***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">23</th>
|
|
<td>688.03</td>
|
|
<td>622.88</td>
|
|
<td>65.15***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">24</th>
|
|
<td>664.44</td>
|
|
<td>603.25</td>
|
|
<td>61.19***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="4">NOTES: * = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: months 15, 17, and 18).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="4">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test: months 20 and 21).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="4">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test: months 19, 22, 23, and 24).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="firstNote">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</div>
|
|
<div class="note">NOTES: Payments are adjusted to 2012 dollars using the <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W.</span></div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-10-level.gif" alt="thin, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: months 15, 17, and 18).</div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-5-level.gif" alt="wider, dark gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test: months 20 and 21).</div>
|
|
<div class="lastNote"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-1-level.gif" alt="widest, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test: months 19, 22, 23, and 24).</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="chartCenter">
|
|
<div class="chart700" id="chart5">
|
|
<div class="title">Chart 5.<br>Colorado participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</div>
|
|
<div class="scrollChart"><img src="v74n1p1-chart05.gif" alt="Line chart with tabular version below." width="695" height="281" /></div>
|
|
<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 5. </span>Colorado participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="3" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Month</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Control group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Difference</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-12</th>
|
|
<td>542.00</td>
|
|
<td>561.13</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-19.13</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-11</th>
|
|
<td>554.51</td>
|
|
<td>563.40</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-8.89</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-10</th>
|
|
<td>563.25</td>
|
|
<td>561.44</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.82</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-9</th>
|
|
<td>558.72</td>
|
|
<td>564.44</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-5.71</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-8</th>
|
|
<td>563.14</td>
|
|
<td>580.30</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-17.15</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-7</th>
|
|
<td>573.27</td>
|
|
<td>593.82</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-20.55</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-6</th>
|
|
<td>592.57</td>
|
|
<td>596.25</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-3.67</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-5</th>
|
|
<td>597.63</td>
|
|
<td>605.83</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-8.20</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-4</th>
|
|
<td>599.84</td>
|
|
<td>606.54</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-6.70</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-3</th>
|
|
<td>601.60</td>
|
|
<td>607.48</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-5.89</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-2</th>
|
|
<td>603.23</td>
|
|
<td>609.16</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-5.93</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-1</th>
|
|
<td>606.49</td>
|
|
<td>607.93</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.44</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">0</th>
|
|
<td>609.00</td>
|
|
<td>607.61</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.38</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1</th>
|
|
<td>608.12</td>
|
|
<td>600.81</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">7.31</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2</th>
|
|
<td>615.58</td>
|
|
<td>610.74</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">4.84</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">3</th>
|
|
<td>613.78</td>
|
|
<td>612.23</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.55</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">4</th>
|
|
<td>621.67</td>
|
|
<td>613.67</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">7.99</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">5</th>
|
|
<td>611.10</td>
|
|
<td>603.78</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">7.32</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">6</th>
|
|
<td>615.79</td>
|
|
<td>595.88</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">19.91</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">7</th>
|
|
<td>606.44</td>
|
|
<td>592.87</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">13.57</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">8</th>
|
|
<td>607.80</td>
|
|
<td>589.38</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">18.42</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">9</th>
|
|
<td>607.22</td>
|
|
<td>589.65</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">17.57</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">10</th>
|
|
<td>612.81</td>
|
|
<td>587.15</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">25.66*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">11</th>
|
|
<td>604.42</td>
|
|
<td>589.27</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">15.15</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">12</th>
|
|
<td>612.48</td>
|
|
<td>591.36</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">21.11</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">13</th>
|
|
<td>607.94</td>
|
|
<td>585.78</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">22.16</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">14</th>
|
|
<td>619.75</td>
|
|
<td>595.56</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">24.19</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">15</th>
|
|
<td>608.49</td>
|
|
<td>581.71</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">26.78</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">16</th>
|
|
<td>617.42</td>
|
|
<td>601.20</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">16.22</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">17</th>
|
|
<td>627.55</td>
|
|
<td>598.60</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">28.94*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">18</th>
|
|
<td>619.91</td>
|
|
<td>594.88</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">25.03</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">19</th>
|
|
<td>624.25</td>
|
|
<td>599.23</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">25.02</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">20</th>
|
|
<td>626.91</td>
|
|
<td>601.83</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">25.08</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">21</th>
|
|
<td>634.04</td>
|
|
<td>610.80</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">23.24</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">22</th>
|
|
<td>628.82</td>
|
|
<td>607.45</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">21.37</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">23</th>
|
|
<td>620.89</td>
|
|
<td>591.37</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">29.52</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">24</th>
|
|
<td>630.08</td>
|
|
<td>613.09</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">16.99</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="4">NOTES: * = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: months 10 and 17).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="4">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="4">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="firstNote">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</div>
|
|
<div class="note">NOTES: Payments are adjusted to 2012 dollars using the <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W.</span></div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-10-level.gif" alt="thin, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: months 10 and 17).</div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-5-level.gif" alt="wider, dark gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="lastNote"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-1-level.gif" alt="widest, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="chartCenter">
|
|
<div class="chart700" id="chart6">
|
|
<div class="title">Chart 6.<br>Maryland participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</div>
|
|
<div class="scrollChart"><img src="v74n1p1-chart06.gif" alt="Line chart with tabular version below." width="695" height="281" /></div>
|
|
<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 6. </span>Maryland participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="3" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Month</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Control group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Difference</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-12</th>
|
|
<td>49.32</td>
|
|
<td>64.83</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-15.50</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-11</th>
|
|
<td>51.56</td>
|
|
<td>64.26</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-12.70</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-10</th>
|
|
<td>52.50</td>
|
|
<td>65.31</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-12.82</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-9</th>
|
|
<td>53.10</td>
|
|
<td>68.58</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-15.48</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-8</th>
|
|
<td>54.24</td>
|
|
<td>69.02</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-14.78</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-7</th>
|
|
<td>54.77</td>
|
|
<td>73.94</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-19.17</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-6</th>
|
|
<td>52.25</td>
|
|
<td>74.22</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-21.97</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-5</th>
|
|
<td>50.18</td>
|
|
<td>75.66</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">-25.48*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-4</th>
|
|
<td>50.79</td>
|
|
<td>75.17</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">-24.37*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-3</th>
|
|
<td>53.97</td>
|
|
<td>78.34</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">-24.37*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-2</th>
|
|
<td>56.89</td>
|
|
<td>75.56</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-18.66</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-1</th>
|
|
<td>60.53</td>
|
|
<td>82.57</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-22.03</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">0</th>
|
|
<td>65.91</td>
|
|
<td>89.22</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-23.31</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1</th>
|
|
<td>71.77</td>
|
|
<td>89.68</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-17.91</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2</th>
|
|
<td>72.46</td>
|
|
<td>94.48</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-22.02</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">3</th>
|
|
<td>78.64</td>
|
|
<td>99.50</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-20.86</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">4</th>
|
|
<td>83.78</td>
|
|
<td>99.57</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-15.79</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">5</th>
|
|
<td>84.75</td>
|
|
<td>102.62</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-17.86</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">6</th>
|
|
<td>86.68</td>
|
|
<td>104.05</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-17.37</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">7</th>
|
|
<td>85.35</td>
|
|
<td>102.30</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-16.94</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">8</th>
|
|
<td>93.33</td>
|
|
<td>106.65</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-13.32</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">9</th>
|
|
<td>95.85</td>
|
|
<td>107.56</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-11.71</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">10</th>
|
|
<td>102.48</td>
|
|
<td>107.29</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-4.81</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">11</th>
|
|
<td>102.60</td>
|
|
<td>116.92</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-14.31</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">12</th>
|
|
<td>104.35</td>
|
|
<td>117.20</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-12.85</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">13</th>
|
|
<td>107.77</td>
|
|
<td>119.47</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-11.71</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">14</th>
|
|
<td>108.63</td>
|
|
<td>119.16</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-10.53</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">15</th>
|
|
<td>108.98</td>
|
|
<td>118.56</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-9.57</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">16</th>
|
|
<td>108.43</td>
|
|
<td>115.94</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-7.51</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">17</th>
|
|
<td>116.01</td>
|
|
<td>119.34</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-3.33</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">18</th>
|
|
<td>122.45</td>
|
|
<td>120.18</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.27</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">19</th>
|
|
<td>125.34</td>
|
|
<td>128.09</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-2.75</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">20</th>
|
|
<td>129.96</td>
|
|
<td>130.02</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.05</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">21</th>
|
|
<td>131.10</td>
|
|
<td>132.52</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-1.42</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">22</th>
|
|
<td>131.17</td>
|
|
<td>132.02</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-0.86</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">23</th>
|
|
<td>133.95</td>
|
|
<td>131.90</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.04</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">24</th>
|
|
<td>135.46</td>
|
|
<td>133.00</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">2.45</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="4">NOTES: * = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: months 3, 4, and 5).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="4">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="4">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="firstNote">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</div>
|
|
<div class="note">NOTES: Payments are adjusted to 2012 dollars using the <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W.</span></div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-10-level.gif" alt="thin, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: months 3, 4, and 5).</div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-5-level.gif" alt="wider, dark gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
<div class="lastNote"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-1-level.gif" alt="widest, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test).</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="chartCenter">
|
|
<div class="chart700" id="chart7">
|
|
<div class="title">Chart 7.<br>Florida participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</div>
|
|
<div class="scrollChart"><img src="v74n1p1-chart07.gif" alt="Line chart with tabular version below." width="695" height="281" /></div>
|
|
<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 7. </span>Florida participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="3" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Month</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Control group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Difference</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-12</th>
|
|
<td>564.71</td>
|
|
<td>575.53</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-10.82</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-11</th>
|
|
<td>567.20</td>
|
|
<td>571.99</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-4.79</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-10</th>
|
|
<td>567.23</td>
|
|
<td>572.83</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-5.60</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-9</th>
|
|
<td>558.91</td>
|
|
<td>568.19</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-9.27</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-8</th>
|
|
<td>553.58</td>
|
|
<td>585.94</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">-32.36*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-7</th>
|
|
<td>540.86</td>
|
|
<td>580.89</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">-40.03**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-6</th>
|
|
<td>540.65</td>
|
|
<td>572.24</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">-31.59*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-5</th>
|
|
<td>548.07</td>
|
|
<td>568.55</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-20.48</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-4</th>
|
|
<td>536.53</td>
|
|
<td>557.44</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-20.90</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-3</th>
|
|
<td>525.72</td>
|
|
<td>558.47</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">-32.75*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-2</th>
|
|
<td>523.75</td>
|
|
<td>559.63</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">-35.88*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-1</th>
|
|
<td>521.99</td>
|
|
<td>552.27</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-30.29</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">0</th>
|
|
<td>521.65</td>
|
|
<td>557.45</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">-35.80*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1</th>
|
|
<td>515.51</td>
|
|
<td>551.56</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">-36.05*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2</th>
|
|
<td>511.05</td>
|
|
<td>542.43</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-31.38</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">3</th>
|
|
<td>512.06</td>
|
|
<td>527.71</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-15.65</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">4</th>
|
|
<td>512.71</td>
|
|
<td>511.62</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">1.09</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">5</th>
|
|
<td>513.08</td>
|
|
<td>499.97</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">13.11</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">6</th>
|
|
<td>515.64</td>
|
|
<td>506.30</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">9.34</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">7</th>
|
|
<td>512.82</td>
|
|
<td>498.66</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">14.16</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">8</th>
|
|
<td>513.89</td>
|
|
<td>503.27</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">10.61</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">9</th>
|
|
<td>511.48</td>
|
|
<td>503.25</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">8.23</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">10</th>
|
|
<td>516.93</td>
|
|
<td>496.89</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">20.04</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">11</th>
|
|
<td>516.35</td>
|
|
<td>490.15</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">26.20</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">12</th>
|
|
<td>513.57</td>
|
|
<td>488.38</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">25.19</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">13</th>
|
|
<td>513.33</td>
|
|
<td>485.82</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">27.51</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">14</th>
|
|
<td>514.65</td>
|
|
<td>477.92</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">36.73*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">15</th>
|
|
<td>510.21</td>
|
|
<td>477.29</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">32.93</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">16</th>
|
|
<td>510.58</td>
|
|
<td>470.33</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">40.25*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">17</th>
|
|
<td>510.28</td>
|
|
<td>460.85</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">49.44**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">18</th>
|
|
<td>507.73</td>
|
|
<td>460.03</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">47.70**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">19</th>
|
|
<td>512.61</td>
|
|
<td>460.37</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">52.24**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">20</th>
|
|
<td>511.29</td>
|
|
<td>457.92</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">53.38**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">21</th>
|
|
<td>507.69</td>
|
|
<td>453.57</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">54.12**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">22</th>
|
|
<td>505.49</td>
|
|
<td>451.89</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">53.60**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">23</th>
|
|
<td>508.00</td>
|
|
<td>444.03</td>
|
|
<td>63.97***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">24</th>
|
|
<td>506.53</td>
|
|
<td>445.99</td>
|
|
<td>60.54***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="4">NOTES: * = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: months -8, -6, -3, -2, 0, 1, 14, and 16).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="4">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test: months -7, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="4">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test: months 23 and 24).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="firstNote">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</div>
|
|
<div class="note">NOTES: Payments are adjusted to 2012 dollars using the <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W.</span></div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-10-level.gif" alt="thin, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: months -8, -6, -3, -2, 0, 1, 14, and 16).</div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-5-level.gif" alt="wider, dark gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test: months -7, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22).</div>
|
|
<div class="lastNote"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-1-level.gif" alt="widest, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test: months 23 and 24).</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="chartCenter">
|
|
<div class="chart700" id="chart8">
|
|
<div class="title">Chart 8.<br>West Virginia participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</div>
|
|
<div class="scrollChart"><img src="v74n1p1-chart08.gif" alt="Line chart with tabular version below." width="696" height="281" /></div>
|
|
<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 8. </span>West Virginia participants: Average amount of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments in 12 months preceding and 24 months following random assignment (in dollars)</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="3" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Month</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Treatment group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Control group</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Difference</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-12</th>
|
|
<td>586.42</td>
|
|
<td>580.66</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">5.76</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-11</th>
|
|
<td>589.18</td>
|
|
<td>591.28</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">-2.10</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-10</th>
|
|
<td>596.21</td>
|
|
<td>586.78</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">9.43</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-9</th>
|
|
<td>601.92</td>
|
|
<td>597.29</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">4.64</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-8</th>
|
|
<td>603.48</td>
|
|
<td>598.48</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">5.00</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-7</th>
|
|
<td>608.02</td>
|
|
<td>592.54</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">15.48</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-6</th>
|
|
<td>604.63</td>
|
|
<td>597.91</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">6.73</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-5</th>
|
|
<td>607.59</td>
|
|
<td>596.61</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">10.98</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-4</th>
|
|
<td>611.08</td>
|
|
<td>600.78</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">10.29</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-3</th>
|
|
<td>612.81</td>
|
|
<td>606.80</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">6.01</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-2</th>
|
|
<td>613.54</td>
|
|
<td>608.44</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">5.10</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">-1</th>
|
|
<td>619.40</td>
|
|
<td>611.11</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">8.29</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">0</th>
|
|
<td>617.02</td>
|
|
<td>595.11</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">21.91</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">1</th>
|
|
<td>615.46</td>
|
|
<td>604.10</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">11.36</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">2</th>
|
|
<td>620.50</td>
|
|
<td>607.69</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">12.81</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">3</th>
|
|
<td>617.24</td>
|
|
<td>606.86</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">10.38</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">4</th>
|
|
<td>618.69</td>
|
|
<td>601.43</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">17.26</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">5</th>
|
|
<td>619.00</td>
|
|
<td>601.92</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">17.08</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">6</th>
|
|
<td>610.87</td>
|
|
<td>601.31</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">9.56</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">7</th>
|
|
<td>612.05</td>
|
|
<td>596.24</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">15.81</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">8</th>
|
|
<td>614.60</td>
|
|
<td>589.71</td>
|
|
<td class="align3asterisks">24.89</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">9</th>
|
|
<td>618.11</td>
|
|
<td>588.26</td>
|
|
<td class="align2asterisks">29.85*</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">10</th>
|
|
<td>623.26</td>
|
|
<td>586.59</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">36.67**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">11</th>
|
|
<td>618.11</td>
|
|
<td>580.07</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">38.04**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">12</th>
|
|
<td>612.32</td>
|
|
<td>574.36</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">37.96**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">13</th>
|
|
<td>615.72</td>
|
|
<td>572.10</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">43.62**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">14</th>
|
|
<td>611.51</td>
|
|
<td>567.19</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">44.32**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">15</th>
|
|
<td>611.01</td>
|
|
<td>571.10</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">39.91**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">16</th>
|
|
<td>608.24</td>
|
|
<td>566.08</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">42.16**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">17</th>
|
|
<td>605.17</td>
|
|
<td>558.43</td>
|
|
<td>46.74***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">18</th>
|
|
<td>595.12</td>
|
|
<td>555.16</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">39.95**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">19</th>
|
|
<td>597.27</td>
|
|
<td>549.61</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">47.66**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">20</th>
|
|
<td>593.48</td>
|
|
<td>547.34</td>
|
|
<td class="align1asterisk">46.14**</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">21</th>
|
|
<td>599.62</td>
|
|
<td>550.54</td>
|
|
<td>49.08***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">22</th>
|
|
<td>602.01</td>
|
|
<td>546.88</td>
|
|
<td>55.13***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">23</th>
|
|
<td>597.67</td>
|
|
<td>538.49</td>
|
|
<td>59.18***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">24</th>
|
|
<td>601.30</td>
|
|
<td>540.10</td>
|
|
<td>61.20***</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="4">NOTES: * = statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: month 9).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="4">** = statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test: months 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, and 20).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="4">*** = statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test: months 17, 21, 22, 23, and 24).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="firstNote">SOURCE: Author's calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program records.</div>
|
|
<div class="note">NOTES: Payments are adjusted to 2012 dollars using the <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W.</span></div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-10-level.gif" alt="thin, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .10 level (two-tailed t-test: month 9).</div>
|
|
<div class="note"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-5-level.gif" alt="wider, dark gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .05 level (two-tailed t-test: months 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, and 20).</div>
|
|
<div class="lastNote"><img class="no-margin" src="v74n1p1-1-level.gif" alt="widest, light gray line" width="10" height="13" /> = difference is statistically significant at the .01 level (two-tailed t-test: months 17, 21, 22, 23, and 24).</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>The differences between the average <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments for the treatment and control groups varied across sites. For <abbr>CUNY</abbr>, the difference was statistically significant for all months beginning in the sixth month before random assignment. By contrast, for Colorado, the difference was only statistically significant in two instances (months 10 and 17 after random assignment). Treatment-group payments tended to be significantly greater than those for the control group, especially in the second year after random assignment. For example, in Florida, the treatment group had statistically higher payments in all months after month 16; and in West Virginia, the treatment group had statistically higher payments in all months after month 9.</p>
|
|
<p>Only in Maryland, where most youths were not receiving any <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments at random assignment, were the control group's payments consistently higher than the treatment group's payments over most of the period (although the difference is generally not statistically significant). Overall, the sites with significant increases in the percentage of youths with earnings in the first year (<abbr>CUNY</abbr>, Florida, and West Virginia; see <a href="#table5">Table 5</a>) also had statistically significant higher <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program payments at 12 months (differences of $39, $25, and $38, respectively; see Charts <a href="#chart3">3</a>, <a href="#chart7">7</a>, and <a href="#chart8">8</a>). Those differences grew to $84, $61, and $61, respectively, at month 24.</p>
|
|
<h3>Regression-Adjusted Results</h3>
|
|
<p>Although youths were randomly assigned into the treatment and control groups, the two groups differed significantly at the baseline in many of the demographic characteristics reported in the <span class="nobr">12-month</span> interim reports (a few instances are identified in <a href="#table2">Table 2</a>). Additionally, <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment or concurrent <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>/<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefit receipt differed in the month of random assignment for <abbr>CUNY</abbr> and Maryland participants. Researchers often use multivariate regression analysis to improve the precision and efficiency of their estimates when there are known differences (Orr 1999).</p>
|
|
<p>The baseline surveys revealed differences between the treatment and control groups in several characteristics. Although the differences varied across sites, those characteristics included age; sex; race; language; living arrangement; self-reported health status; need for assistance in hearing, walking, or other functions; ability to perform certain independent activities; volunteer work, job training, and disability program payments received in the past year; paid work in the past month; expectations about future work; and parent's education and employment. Differences were generally small and within the number of differences one would expect to be due to chance. The Maryland site had the highest number of statistically different characteristics, with 6 (of 31 measured characteristics). However, those differences may substantially affect the results. The estimates presented in the <span class="nobr">12-month</span> interim reports were regression-adjusted, meaning these variables were included in a regression of the outcome on the treatment dummy. The coefficient on the treatment dummy is the regression-adjusted intent-to-treat impact.<sup><a href="#mn17" id="mt17">17</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>To test if known differences alter the results, I compared the raw-difference impacts with the impacts when controlling for sex, disability, age at random assignment, and the value of the outcome variable in the month of random assignment (results available upon request). In only two cases did an insignificant raw impact become significant with the regression adjustment (for Erie County, the receipt of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> worker benefits; and for Colorado, the receipt of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments); and although the magnitude of those two impacts changed, in neither case did it change direction.<sup><a href="#mn18" id="mt18">18</a></sup> In one case, a significant raw impact became insignificant with the regression adjustment (for West Virginia, the receipt of auxiliary <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits). None of these changes substantially alters the general thrust of the raw-difference results.</p>
|
|
<h2>Discussion</h2>
|
|
<p>This article examines how <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects affect earnings and <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> disability program participation for youths 24 months after random assignment into treatment or control groups. The results are consistent with the objectives of the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project as a whole. Given the young age and minimal work experience of most <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants, the small change in earnings is unsurprising. However, the results suggest that some sites succeeded in moving marginal workers into the labor force, increasing the prevalence of earners but reducing average earnings amounts.</p>
|
|
<p>Fraker (2013) showed that, at least in the first year after random assignment, employment impacts were positively correlated with average intensity of employment services. Interestingly, for most sites, the share of the treatment group that had earnings dropped in the second year after random assignment, coinciding with the end of service delivery for most youths. For example, the share of youths with earnings in the <abbr>CUNY</abbr> treatment group dropped 13.0 percentage points, and in West Virginia, that share dropped 21.1 percentage points. Although the control groups generally mimicked that second-year drop in employment, these two sites sustained significant impacts on employment. Additionally, the significant impacts on the prevalence of earners only in the second year after random assignment in the Colorado site—after program services ended for most youths—suggest potential delayed project impacts. Whether the earnings impacts will rebound in future years or fade out completely remains an open question.</p>
|
|
<p>The differences between treatment and control groups in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participation increased over 24 months in all sites except Maryland. The higher shares of treatment-group youths receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments and the generally higher payment amounts are consistent with the intent of the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participants. The program waivers allow the treatment-group youths to keep more of their income and remain in the program longer than the control-group youths. Combined with the earnings results, the waivers may indicate better employment outcomes for treatment-group youths. Although not statistically significant, the negative <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participation impact in Maryland is also consistent with the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>'s intent of reducing the need for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> among youths not already receiving it. Future research will determine if project services and waivers improve longer-term employment outcomes.</p>
|
|
<p>It is too early to determine the overall success of the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project, but the results provide evidence of increased earnings and employment in some sites. Although this is an important outcome, the results presented here do not consider other sources of income, as would be necessary to more fully assess progress toward self-sufficiency. The <span class="nobr">12-month</span> interim reports took, and the final report will take, advantage of survey information on work experiences, living arrangements, and nondisability program transfer payments to provide greater insight on participant self-sufficiency.</p>
|
|
<p>The sample sizes for each <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project site were chosen to enable the detection of impacts in the range of <span class="nobr">7–12</span> percent (Rangarajan and others 2009). Thus, although the projects may have been well implemented, smaller impacts cannot be detected by design. For example, the differences between the treatment and control groups in the shares with earnings in the second year after random assignment range from 0.5 to 9.3 percent; only the estimates close to the lower bound of minimum detectable impacts (or the upper bound of the observed range of outcomes) are significant.</p>
|
|
<p>Prior studies on transition-age <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients have generally reported observational outcomes (for example, Loprest and Wittenburg 2007). The <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> is one of the first initiatives to establish a causal relationship between services and employment for that population.<sup><a href="#mn19" id="mt19">19</a></sup> An earlier large-scale study, the State Partnership Initiative (<abbr class="spell">SPI</abbr>), included some projects that used an experimental design; interestingly, the few projects with those services were found to increase employment but not earnings, at least in the short term (Peikes and others 2005).<sup><a href="#mn20" id="mt20">20</a></sup> This outcome may have resulted from individuals limiting their earnings to maintain benefit eligibility (Wittenburg, Mann, and Thompkins 2013). Although the <abbr class="spell">SPI</abbr> tested versions of some of the program waivers included in the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>, such testing took place at only one of the <abbr class="spell">SPI</abbr> sites that used an experimental design. For the <abbr class="spell">SPI</abbr> population, the effects of waiver availability (separate from services received) on earnings and program participation, along with any longer-term impacts, are unclear.</p>
|
|
<p>For two reasons, the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> may yield more positive results as time passes. First, many project participants are or recently were still in school and thus may not yet have been ready or able to have substantial earnings. Although the phase 2 project sites focused more on competitive employment, all <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> sites encouraged work experiences, including unpaid internships and temporary employment. Benefits from those experiences may not be realized until much later, and thus may not yet be captured in <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s program records. Second, the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>'s sustained impacts on <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> participation after services ended may indicate increased use of the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> rule waivers that encourage work. The surveys informing the interim and final reports will provide greater detail on the experiences of treatment- and control-group youths up to 3 years after random assignment.</p>
|
|
<p>More extensive and focused analyses could help policymakers better understand how well <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>-type</span> services work among those who use them. Planned future reports will use the baseline surveys to estimate <span class="nobr">3-year</span> project impacts, which may improve the estimates. <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> services were meant to enable youths to permanently change the path they would otherwise have followed. As such, any project impacts may last well into the future, and further examination of this population may yield important findings for similar future interventions.</p>
|
|
<div id="notes">
|
|
<h2>Notes</h2>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt1" id="mn1">1</a> <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> previously funded similar projects such as the Transitional Employment Training Demonstration, Project NetWork, and the State Partnership Initiative, all of which served broader populations than that served by the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>. The Department of Labor's Structured Training and Employment Transitional Services demonstration served a similar age range, but was limited to youths with low intelligence test scores who did not necessarily receive <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits. Those projects had varying impacts, but generally improved employment outcomes for participants. Wittenburg, Mann, and Thompkins (2013) summarize those and other employment programs for people with disabilities.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt2" id="mn2">2</a> A paper presenting preliminary results was based on partial data for three of the sites (Hemmeter 2012); this article fully updates that paper.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt3" id="mn3">3</a> See Bucks Camacho and Hemmeter (2013) for a review of the California and Mississippi projects.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt4" id="mn4">4</a> See <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s Work Incentives Planning and Assistance website for more information on that program and the training its participants received (<a href="/work/WIPA.html">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/work/WIPA.html</a>).</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt5" id="mn5">5</a> One Stop Workforce Centers, sponsored by the Department of Labor's Employment & Training Administration, provide various job placement and related support services for both job seekers and employers.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt6" id="mn6">6</a> The position is named for the Department of Labor initiative under which it was established (for more information, see http://www.doleta.gov/disability/new_dpn_grants.cfm).</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt7" id="mn7">7</a> The Summer Youth Employment Program is a subsidized employment program available on a lottery basis to all New York City youths.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt8" id="mn8">8</a> <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> generally pays amounts due when underpayments are detected but does not necessarily recoup all overpayments.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt9" id="mn9">9</a> For a review of this methodology, see Orr (1999) or Duflo, Glennerster, and Kremer (2006).</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt10" id="mn10">10</a> The <span class="nobr">12-month</span> interim reports cited in the site descriptions assess project impacts based primarily on survey data using regression adjustments to control for several statistically significant differences between the treatment and control groups. Although <abbr class="spell">MPR</abbr> correctly implemented randomization, some differences between the treatment and control groups remained. Unfortunately, many of the differing characteristics are not available in the administrative records upon which the current analysis is based. Regression-adjusted results using the available administrative data and the differences in characteristics between the treatment and control groups are discussed later.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt11" id="mn11">11</a> Although <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility typically requires 20 quarters of coverage (with 10 occurring in the past 5 years), that requirement is relaxed for younger individuals. Until age 22, youths need only 6 quarters of coverage to become eligible for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt12" id="mn12">12</a> See Gertler and others (2011) for a discussion of the “difference-in-difference” estimate exemplified by this difference between the differences at the baseline and at month 24. This estimate controls for time-invariant heterogeneity in the sample by differencing out any underlying trends. In calculating this estimate, I find that <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participation increased <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment receipt by 4 to 14 percentage points over 24 months; the impact on <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefit receipt was much smaller, and sometimes negative.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt13" id="mn13">13</a> In the year of random assignment, the difference in the percentages of the treatment and control groups with earnings was significant in the Florida and West Virginia sites (5 and 7 percentage points, respectively; not shown). For the statistics included in <a href="#table5">Table 5</a>, no other differences in employment-related outcomes in the year of random assignment were significant. Whether those differences reflect early program results cannot be determined, given the yearly measure of earnings.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt14" id="mn14">14</a> <abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr> is a monthly measure of the upper limit of work activity that precludes an individual from being determined disabled for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility. In 2012, the <abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr> amount was $1,010 for nonblind beneficiaries and $1,690 for blind beneficiaries. For <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries, earnings above the <abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr> level can result in a suspension of benefits after a trial work period. For <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients, earnings above the <abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr> level will not necessarily result in suspension of payments; rather, payments are generally reduced by $1 for every $2 earned above $65 until the payment reaches $0. For the purposes of this analysis, I annualize <abbr class="spell">SGA</abbr> by multiplying by 12.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt15" id="mn15">15</a> Consider the following simplified example: Given four people, two of whom work earning $5 and two of whom do not work, the average earnings of the workers equal $5 ([$5+$5]/2). If one nonworker starts to work, but earns only $2, then even though more people are working, average earnings drop to $4 ([$5+$5+$2]/3).</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt16" id="mn16">16</a> Results in this article differ from those in the <span class="nobr">12-month</span> interim reports for several reasons. First, although all the interim reports used <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments due, those data may have changed as <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> became aware of new earnings information. Second, this article's use of actual <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefit payments rather than <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> amounts due may lead to some minor differences. Third, the authors of the interim reports adjusted payments for inflation to 2008 dollars, and this article adjusts payments to 2012 dollars using the <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">CPI</abbr>-W.</span></p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt17" id="mn17">17</a> Note that a regression without any other covariates would yield the same coefficient on the treatment dummy as the raw difference between the treatment and control groups.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt18" id="mn18">18</a> Similarly, the interim reports include a comparison of the raw and regression-adjusted estimates and find few instances in which the direction and significance of the results differed.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt19" id="mn19">19</a> See Luecking (2009) for a review of the evidence on the role of employment services and experiences for youths in the transition from school to work.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt20" id="mn20">20</a> <abbr class="spell">SPI</abbr> projects typically served <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries aged <span class="nobr">18–65,</span> so the comparability of some results with those of the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> may be limited. Furthermore, participation at some <abbr class="spell">SPI</abbr> sites was restricted to persons with mental disorders, those receiving vocational rehabilitation services, or other groups (Peikes and others 2005).</p>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div id="references">
|
|
<h2>References</h2>
|
|
<p>Bucks Camacho, Christa, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. 2013. “<a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v73n1/v73n1p59.html">Linking Youth Transition Support Services: Results From Two Demonstration Projects</a>.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 73(1): <span class="nobr">59–71.</span></p>
|
|
<p>Davies, Paul S., Kalman Rupp, and David Wittenburg. 2009. “A Life-Cycle Perspective on the Transition to Adulthood Among Children Receiving Supplemental Security Income Payments.” <i>Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation</i> 30(3): <span class="nobr">133–151.</span></p>
|
|
<p>Duflo, Esther, Rachel Glennerster, and Michael Kremer. 2006. “Using Randomization in Development Economics Research: A Toolkit.” <abbr class="spell">NBER</abbr> Technical Working Paper <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 333. Cambridge, <abbr title="Massachusetts">MA</abbr>: National Bureau of Economic Research.</p>
|
|
<p>Fraker, Thomas. 2013. “The Youth Transition Demonstration: Lifting Employment Barriers for Youth with Disabilities.” Center for Studying Disability Policy Issue Brief <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">13-01.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research.</p>
|
|
<p>Fraker, Thomas, Peter Baird, Alison Black, Arif Mamun, Michelle Manno, John Martinez, Anu Rangarajan, and Debbie Reed. 2011a. <i>The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on Colorado Youth <abbr>WINS</abbr>.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research.</p>
|
|
<p>Fraker, Thomas, Alison Black, Joseph Broadus, Arif Mamun, Michelle Manno, John Martinez, Reanin McRoberts, Anu Rangarajan, and Debbie Reed. 2011b. <i>The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on the City University of New York's Project.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research.</p>
|
|
<p>Fraker, Thomas, Alison Black, Arif Mamun, Michelle Manno, John Martinez, Bonnie O'Day, Meghan O'Toole, Anu Rangarajan, and Debbie Reed. 2011c. <i>The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on Transition WORKS.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research.</p>
|
|
<p>Fraker, Thomas, Peter Baird, Arif Mamun, Michelle Manno, John Martinez, Debbie Reed, and Allison Thompkins. 2012a. <i>The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on the Career Transition Program.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research. </p>
|
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<p>Fraker, Thomas, Todd Honeycutt, Arif Mamun, Michelle Manno, John Martinez, Bonnie O'Day, Debbie Reed, and Allison Thompkins. 2012b. <i>The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on Broadened Horizons, Brighter Futures.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research.</p>
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<p>Fraker, Thomas, Arif Mamun, Michelle Manno, John Martinez, Debbie Reed, Allison Thompkins, and David Wittenburg. 2012c. <i>The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on West Virginia Youth Works.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research.</p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr>. <i>See</i> Government Accountability Office.</p>
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<p>Government Accountability Office. 2012. <i>Students with Disabilities: Better Federal Coordination Could Lessen Challenges in the Transition from High School.</i> <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr>-12</span>-594. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr>. <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-12-594">http://www.gao.gov/products/<abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr>-12-594</a>.</p>
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<p>Hemmeter, Jeffrey. 2012. “Earnings and Disability Program Participation of Youth Transition Demonstration Participants After 24 months.” Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="/disabilityresearch/documents/YTD%20Final.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/disabilityresearch/documents/<abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>%20Final.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Hemmeter, Jeffrey, Jacqueline Kauff, and David Wittenburg. 2009. “Changing Circumstances: Experiences of Child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Recipients Before and After Their <span class="nobr">Age-18</span> Redetermination for Adult Benefits.” <i>Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation</i> 30(3): <span class="nobr">201–221.</span></p>
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<p>Loprest, Pamela J., and David C. Wittenburg. 2007. “Posttransition Experiences of Former Child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Recipients.” <i>Social Service Review</i> 81(4): <span class="nobr">583–608.</span></p>
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<p>Luecking, Richard G. 2009. <i>The Way to Work: How to Facilitate Work Experiences for Youth in Transition</i>. Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: Paul H. Brookes Publishing <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></p>
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<p>Martinez, John, Thomas Fraker, Michelle Manno, Peter Baird, Arif Mamun, Bonnie <span class="nobr">O'Day,</span> Anu Rangarajan, and Davis Wittenburg. 2010<i>. The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Implementation Lessons from the Original Projects.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research.</p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">NCWD</abbr>] National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth. 2005. <i>Guideposts for Success</i>. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Institute on Educational Leadership.</p>
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<p>Orr, Larry L. 1999. <i>Social Experiments: Evaluating Public Programs with Experimental Methods</i>. Thousand Oaks, <abbr title="California">CA</abbr>: Sage Publications.</p>
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<p>Osgood, D. Wayne, E. Michael Foster, and Mark E. Courtney. 2010. “Vulnerable Populations and the Transition to Adulthood.” <i>The Future of Children</i> 20(1): <span class="nobr">209–229.</span></p>
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<p>Peikes, Deborah, Sean Orzol, Lorenzo Moreno, Nora Paxton. 2005. <i>State Partnership Initiative: Selection of Comparison Groups for the Evaluation and Selected Impact Estimates.</i> Princeton, <abbr title="New Jersey">NJ</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research.</p>
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<p>Rangarajan, Anu, Thomas Fraker, Todd Honeycutt, Arif Mamun, John Martinez, Bonnie O'Day, and David Wittenburg. 2009. <i>The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Evaluation Design Report.</i> Princeton, <abbr title="New Jersey">NJ</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research.</p>
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<p>Rupp, Kalman, and Charles G. Scott. 1995. “<a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v58n1/v58n1p29.pdf">Length of Stay on the Supplemental Security Income Disability Program</a>.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 58(1): <span class="nobr">29–47.</span></p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>] Social Security Administration. 2003. “Supplemental Security Income (<abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>), Youth Transition Process Demonstration (<abbr class="spell">YTPD</abbr>).” <i>Federal Register</i> 68(194): <span class="nobr">57950–57953</span> (October 7). <a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2003-10-07/html/03-25194.htm">http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2003/03-25194.htm</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2008. “Supplemental Security Income, Youth Transition Demonstration.” <i>Federal Register</i> 73(50): <span class="nobr">13601–13603</span> (March 13). <a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2008-03-13/html/E8-5036.htm">http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2008/E8-5036.htm</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2013. <i>2013 Red Book: A Summary Guide to Employment Supports for Persons with Disabilities Under the Social Security Disability Insurance and Supplemental Security Income Programs.</i> <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Publication <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">64-030.</span> Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="/redbook/">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/redbook</a>.</p>
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<p>Wittenburg, David, David R. Mann, and Allison Thompkins. 2013. “The Disability System and Programs to Promote Employment for People with Disabilities.” <i><abbr>IZA</abbr> Journal of Labor Policy</i> 2(4): <span class="nobr">1–25.</span></p>
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