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<h1 itemprop="headline">Linking Youth Transition Support Services: Results from Two Demonstration Projects</h1>
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<div id="hByline">by <span itemprop="author">Christa Bucks Camacho and Jeffrey Hemmeter</span><br>Social Security Bulletin, <abbr title="Volume">Vol.</abbr> 73, <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1, 2013 (released February 2013)</div>
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<div id="breadcrumbs" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/BreadcrumbList">You are here: <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="/" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name">Social Security Administration</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="1" /></span> > <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="/policy/index.html" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name">Research, Statistics & Policy Analysis</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="2" /></span> > <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="/policy/docs/ssb/index.html" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name">Social Security Bulletin</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="3" /></span> > <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="index.html" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name"><abbr title="Volume">Vol.</abbr> 73, <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="4" /></span></div>
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<div class="innards">
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<div class="introBox">
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<p id="synopsis" itemprop="description">Many youths with disabilities, especially those receiving or potentially eligible for Social Security benefits, need assistance as they transition into adulthood. Upon completing secondary school, they face an abrupt end to provider-initiated public entitlement services. They often lack the knowledge and support to access and link fragmented adult support services. This article presents an overview of two projects in the Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration: California's Bridges to Youth Self-Sufficiency and Mississippi's Model Youth Transition Innovation. We report key outcomes and highlight the experience of one youth in each project who successfully completed the program.</p>
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<hr />
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<div class="eightypercent">
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<p>When this article was written, Christa Bucks Camacho was a social insurance specialist in the Office of Program Development and Research (<abbr class="spell">OPDR</abbr>), Office of Retirement and Disability Policy (<abbr class="spell">ORDP</abbr>), Social Security Administration (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>). She is currently with the Office of Budget Finance Management, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. Jeffrey Hemmeter is an economist with <abbr class="spell">OPDR</abbr>, <abbr class="spell">ORDP</abbr>, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</p>
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<p>A version of part of this article appeared as a case study in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (<abbr class="spell">OECD</abbr>) report <i>Pathways for Disabled Students to Tertiary Education and Employment.</i></p>
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<p><i>Acknowledgments:</i> The authors are grateful to Richard Balkus, Susan Wilschke, <abbr class="spell">MJ</abbr> Pencarski, Joyanne Cobb, and Rene Parent for their comments on earlier versions of this article. The authors thank the California Department of Rehabilitation and the Mississippi Department of Rehabilitation Services for providing us with the data we used in our analysis. </p>
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<p>Contents of this publication are <a href="/policy/accessibility.html">not copyrighted</a>; any items may be reprinted, but citation of the <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> as the source is requested. The findings and conclusions presented in the <i>Bulletin</i> are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Social Security Administration or <abbr class="spell">OECD</abbr>.</p>
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</div>
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</div>
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<h2>Introduction</h2>
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<div class="abbrtable">
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<table role="presentation">
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<caption>Selected Abbreviations</caption>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr></td>
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<td>California Department of Rehabilitation</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></td>
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<td>Disability Insurance</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">EN</abbr></td>
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<td>employment network</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">GEIE</abbr></td>
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<td>general earned income exclusion</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr></td>
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<td>individual development account</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">MDRS</abbr></td>
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<td>Mississippi Department of Rehabilitation Service</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr></td>
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<td>Model Youth Transition Innovation</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr></td>
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<td>student earned income exclusion</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr></td>
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<td>Social Security Administration</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr></td>
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<td>Social Security number</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr></td>
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<td>Youth Transition Demonstration</td>
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</tr>
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</table>
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</div>
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<p>Many youths with disabilities, especially those receiving or potentially entitled to Social Security benefits, need transition assistance as they reach adulthood. Upon completing secondary school, they face an abrupt end to the publicly provided services they received through the education system. They are often not prepared to access adult services, such as vocational rehabilitation, if those services are not educational entitlements.<sup><a href="#mn1" id="mt1">1</a></sup> If transitioning youths desire support services after they begin higher education or go to work, they must identify themselves as having a disability, provide documentation of their disability, and formally request accommodations and services, often for the first time (<abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr> 2009). The Social Security Administration (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>) designed the Youth Transition Demonstration (<abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>) projects partly to link the fragmented support system currently in place. More broadly, <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects addressed low expectations about employment and self-sufficiency from the individual, his or her family, and society.</p>
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<p>Over 1 million youths aged <span class="nobr">14–25</span> receive Supplemental Security Income (<abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>) payments, and approximately 2.2 million <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients are younger than age 30 (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2012). Presently, some young <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients exit the program as a result of a continuing disability review or an <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redetermination.<sup><a href="#mn2" id="mt2">2</a></sup> Transition supports and services that enable workforce entry could keep many other youths from remaining dependent on <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> for the rest of their lives. Rupp and Scott (1995) estimated that <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> youth recipients remain in the program 27 years on average.<sup><a href="#mn3" id="mt3">3</a></sup> In 2010, <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> paid $7.8 billion to youths aged <span class="nobr">13–25,</span> or approximately $650 million a month (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2012).</p>
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<p>For young <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients, one of the most significant barriers to employment is that they do not know how earnings will affect their <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments. The youths, their families, and their teachers lack information on how to use the work incentives available to <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients. Teachers and other potential information sources may not even know that the youth receives <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>. Less than <span class="nobr">one-quarter</span> of young <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients' families have discussed or even heard of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s work incentives (Loprest and Wittenburg 2005). The <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects sought to raise awareness of those incentives as part of their goal to provide youths and their families with the skills and knowledge necessary to achieve independence and self-sufficiency. In turn, participants would become less reliant on <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and other assistance programs, such as Medicaid, thus lowering public costs.</p>
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<p>For <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants who were <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients or Social Security Disability Insurance (<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>) beneficiaries, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> waived certain rules that restrict program eligibility or limit payments for those with work earnings. Those waivers modified existing <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> work incentives to allow <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> youths to retain more of their earnings so they could save or make work- and education-related investments. Table 1 describes the work incentives and the associated <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waivers.</p>
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<div class="table" id="table1">
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<table class="textTable">
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 1. </span><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> work incentives and the effects of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waivers</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:10em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:35em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:20em"></colgroup>
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<thead>
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<tr>
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<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Work incentive</th>
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<th scope="col">Description</th>
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<th scope="col">Policy change under <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waiver</th>
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td> </td>
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<th colspan="2" class="panel" scope="rowgroup"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">Student Earned Income Exclusion (<abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr>) </th>
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<td>Enables recipients who are students to exclude a certain amount of earnings from countable income and thus avoid reductions in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments. In 2009 and 2010 <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> excluded the first $1,640 of a student's earnings each month, to a maximum of $6,600 in a year. <abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr> eligibility ends when a recipient attains age 22.</td>
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<td>Age limit is waived for <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants for as long as they attend school regularly. </td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">General Earned Income Exclusion (<abbr class="spell">GEIE</abbr>) </th>
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<td>Enables most <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients to exclude from countable income the first $65 of earnings plus <span class="nobr">one-half</span> of additional earnings.</td>
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<td><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants can exclude from countable income the first $65 of earnings plus <span class="nobr">three-quarters</span> of additional earnings.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">Plan to Achieve Self-Support (<abbr>PASS</abbr>)</th>
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<td>Enables <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients to exclude from countable income and resources amounts paid for certain expenses, such as the cost of owning a car, pursuing an education, and purchasing assistive technology, to achieve a specific <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>-approved work goal.</td>
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<td><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants can also use a <abbr>PASS</abbr> to explore career options or pursue additional education.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">Individual Development Account (<abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr>) </th>
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<td>Provides a trust-like account for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients to save for a specific goal, such as purchasing a home, going to school, or starting a business. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> matches earnings deposited in an <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr>, often at $2 for every $1 deposited by the participant. The money accumulated in an <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr> is excluded when determining <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> eligibility, and the earnings deposited during a month are excluded when determining the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment amount.</td>
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<td>A <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participant may also use an <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr> to save for other approved goals.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td> </td>
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<th colspan="2" class="panel" scope="rowgroup"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">Continuing Disability Reviews and <span class="nobr">Age-18</span> Redeterminations (Section 301)</th>
|
|
<td>Benefits based on disability may continue despite a negative Continuing Disability Review or <span class="nobr">age-18</span> medical redetermination if:
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<ul>
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|
<li>the beneficiary is participating in any of certain programs; and</li>
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<li><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> determines that continued participation will increase the likelihood that the individual will remain off the disability rolls permanently once benefits stop. These "likelihood" determinations normally must be made on a case-by-case basis.</li>
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</ul>
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</td>
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<td>If <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> determines that medical disability has stopped and the participant is no longer eligible for assistance, he or she can continue to receive both cash benefits and health care services while participating in <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>. </td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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<tfoot>
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<tr>
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<td class="firstNote" colspan="3">SOURCE: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td class="lastNote" colspan="3">NOTE: For full descriptions of these and other <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> work incentives, see <a href="/redbook/">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/redbook</a>.</td>
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</tr>
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</tfoot>
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</table>
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</div>
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<p>Ten <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects operated in eight states. This article examines two of them: California's Bridges to Youth Self-Sufficiency (Bridges) and Mississippi's Model Youth Transition Innovation (<abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>). Both projects assigned participants nonrandomly and developed services to help clients successfully transition into adulthood.<sup><a href="#mn4" id="mt4">4</a></sup> Each <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project provided different combinations of services, but all 10 were designed to improve educational and work outcomes for participants. They generally targeted youths aged <span class="nobr">14–25</span> who were potentially entitled to or already receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits.<sup><a href="#mn5" id="mt5">5</a></sup> Bridges predominantly served youths aged 18 or older (68 percent of participants) while <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> focused its efforts on younger clients (57 percent were aged 16 or younger).</p>
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<p>All of the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects sought to increase the self-sufficiency of transition-age youth with disabilities. That goal, which may not be realized until many years after <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participation, generally takes the form of increased employment and decreased dependence on public benefits, along with improved quality of life. Bridges used a coordinated system of services and supports to help youths and their families achieve those ends. With the support of community and interagency collaborators, <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> applied "discovery" techniques<sup><a href="#mn6" id="mt6">6</a></sup> and customized employment<sup><a href="#mn7" id="mt7">7</a></sup> to facilitate the transition from high school to work for students with significant disabilities.</p>
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<p>Bridges served 504 youths and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> served 184 youths from December 2003 through September 2009. <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> originally planned to serve 319 youths, but lowered its goal after Hurricane Katrina disrupted some of its operations. This article summarizes the Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> projects, reports some key outcomes, and highlights the experiences of one youth from each project who successfully completed the program. The information in this article comes from two primary sources. First, the management information system used by project staff to record their efforts provided aggregate information on the participants' profiles, services received, and outcomes. Second, interviews with staff, partners, and youths were rich sources of information, providing the stories of representative clients. Because Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> served different populations and provided different services, we discuss the projects separately under each of five topics: organization, services, statistics, case studies, and sustainability.</p>
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<h2>Organization</h2>
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<p>In this section, we describe the organization of the Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> projects, focusing on where services were provided and on project staffing structure.</p>
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<h3>Bridges</h3>
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<p>Bridges began as a <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project funded by the <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> and the California Department of Rehabilitation (<abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr>). The project operated in seven school districts chosen to reflect the state's geographic, industrial, cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic diversity. Bridges' two key staff positions were benefits counselor and service coordinator. The benefits counselor educated participants and their families about disability benefits from Social Security and other public programs, <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waivers, and the effect of earnings on monthly <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> payments. The service coordinator provided information on available school-based and adult services and supports. Additionally, a local project manager monitored <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project activities, conducted bimonthly local advisory meetings, and facilitated partnerships with local agencies, community organizations, and businesses.</p>
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<p>A state-level steering committee guided the project and provided an arena for collaboration and information sharing. The committee included the project managers and representatives from <abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr> and other state agencies, the regional Social Security office, and the World Institute on Disability. The committee met twice yearly to provide oversight, evaluate progress, and offer suggestions for collaboration. The committee also helped with state-level system changes deemed necessary for a successful intervention.</p>
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<p>Given its organization within the school system, Bridges recruited youth primarily from the local school districts; however, referrals from community partners were also important. Although Bridges recruited youths with all disabilities within the project area, priority went to participants with multiple disabilities and barriers to employment. Bridges reached out to youths in and out of school, in the foster care system, in the juvenile justice system, and from diverse cultural backgrounds. Youths and their families received letters inviting them to attend an orientation workshop offering information on work incentives. They were also assured that Bridges staff would respond to questions about (and advocate as needed with) <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>, employers, community providers, and public agencies.</p>
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<h3><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr></h3>
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<p><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> was funded by <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> and the Mississippi Department of Rehabilitation Services (<abbr class="spell">MDRS</abbr>). Originally, <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> was implemented in Gulfport Municipal and Harrison County School Districts, with <abbr class="spell">MDRS</abbr> serving as the lead agency. However, Gulfport's participation stopped after 3 years because damage from Hurricane Katrina obstructed efforts to provide the support required for the project interventions. In September 2006, Jackson County Public Schools replaced Gulfport. <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> recruited youths with disabilities from within those school districts.</p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> personnel worked directly in the schools. Teachers were trained to use individual discovery techniques and customized employment approaches in order to facilitate the transition from high school to work for students with significant disabilities. <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>'s key staff positions were classroom teacher, transition specialist, and benefits counselor. The classroom teacher facilitated the discovery process to determine each participant's interests, abilities, and vocational experiences. The transition specialist provided job development, customized planning, and portfolio development to help working-age participants use the customized employment process. The benefits counselor educated participants and their families about disability benefits from Social Security and other public programs, <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waivers, and the effect of earnings on <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> payments.<sup><a href="#mn8" id="mt8">8</a></sup></p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> emphasized person-centered planning and featured Individual Development Accounts (<abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr>s), an innovative approach to transition support. Customized employment was another key feature and many employers assisted the project by providing precareer development for participants.</p>
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<h2>Services</h2>
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<p>In this section, we provide a high-level description of the services provided by the Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> projects. For more details on the services provided, see <abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr> (2009) and Martinez and others (2010).</p>
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<h3>Bridges</h3>
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<p>The project was designed to help youths "pursue their interests, goals, and dreams while living a happy and productive life" (<abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr> 2009, 9). Specifically, Bridges provided interventions to promote personal and financial self-sufficiency, employment (whether <span class="nobr">full-time,</span> part-time, or volunteer), and life quality (through employer relationships and community partners). The service delivery model emphasized self-determined goals, high expectations, a positive vision of the future, collaborative partnerships, and self-advocacy skills.</p>
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<p>All <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> sites provided employment and benefit counseling services. Bridges also focused on work incentive and benefit advice, person-centered planning and early intervention, job development and placement, and intensive service coordination. Those services were built on transition initiatives already available to individuals in the same age range as Bridges participants. <abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr> partnered with the California Department of Education, local school districts, and <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> field offices to assure service delivery. Bridges benefits counselors and service coordinators uniformly directed (or themselves provided) service delivery at all seven Bridges sites. That was accomplished through individual meetings and training workshops that accommodated the schedules of the participants and their families. In workshops on <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> work incentives, for example, participants learned to manage a calendar and filing system to track correspondence and report earnings to <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</p>
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<p>For youths and their caregivers who needed to better organize services and identify additional needs, benefits counselors and service coordinators developed an individualized "action plan." This dynamic plan documented all the needed services and over time, it helped youths and their families to coordinate current and upcoming services on their own.</p>
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<p>Placing benefits counselors and service coordinators in the schools allowed Bridges participants to continue using their schools' career development programs. One such program coached participants in preemployment skills, career awareness, and planning for high school. A similar program emphasized employment and independent living skills; it served youths aged <span class="nobr">14–19</span> who attended high school and had individualized education plans. State agencies, employers, and local colleges collaborated to provide career exploration services, work readiness skills, work-based learning opportunities, paid and unpaid internships, entry-level employment, transition planning, and follow-up services.</p>
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<p>High school students who had moderate or severe disabilities and met certain other conditions were also eligible for the Transition Partnership Project (<abbr class="spell">TPP</abbr>), jointly administered by the school districts and <abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr>. That project worked with city governments, nonprofit groups, public transit agencies, adult service providers, community colleges, state agencies, and employers to provide career planning and employment services for youths who wanted a job. Clients also received additional career services (coordinated with <abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr>) including career assessment, career planning, job-specific skills training, worksite evaluations, job coaching, specialized job development, job placement, and follow-up supports to ensure work retention.</p>
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<p>Bridges also coordinated with several other <abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr> programs for individuals aged 19 or older with moderate or severe disabilities. Those adult programs, run by the school districts or colleges in partnership with <abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr>, focused on transition planning, emphasizing employment and independent living. Clients may have also received a modified education (via adult schools, regional occupational programs,<sup><a href="#mn9" id="mt9">9</a></sup> colleges, community-based instruction, and worksite training), transportation and mobility skills, independent living skills, job coaching, and Americans with Disabilities Act accommodation information.</p>
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<p>Bridges staff helped coordinate those and other transition services (such as health care) for eligible youths. They coordinated benefits and services, held <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits counseling workshops, helped youths with their person-centered action plans, helped to establish family support networks, mentored clients, and trained community stakeholders about <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program rules and how to advocate on behalf of the youths. The project model emphasized systems linkage. Collaboration enabled stakeholders to meet participants' diverse service needs. Bridges staff built partnerships with community providers to optimize service coordination. Benefits counselors and service coordinators completed Community Work Incentive Coordinator training from an <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> contractor to ensure that they understood and could effectively counsel individuals about <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> work incentives. That knowledge helped build relationships throughout the community, as service providers were particularly interested in meeting with Bridges staff to learn about benefits counseling and how to apply <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> work incentive rules.</p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> participated in Bridges meetings. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s Area Work Incentive Coordinator answered technical and operational questions from Bridges staff. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> field office personnel reported that Bridges staff knew the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program rules, and that project participants showed more confidence, independence, and knowledge of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> rules than they had in earlier contacts.</p>
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<h3><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr></h3>
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<p><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> relied on teachers to deliver services because schools are the institutions most responsible for working with youths aged <span class="nobr">4–22</span> with disabilities. <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>'s use of school-based interventions minimized intrusions into students' and their families' time.</p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> was divided into four phases in order to vary the focus of its services according to the age range of participants. For each phase, specific transition services helped participants prepare for or obtain employment.</p>
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<ul>
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<li><b>Phase <abbr title="one">I</abbr></b> served participants aged <span class="nobr">10–13.</span> Teachers helped students with life portfolios and future plans, and referred students for benefits analysis and advice.</li>
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<li><b>Phase <abbr title="two">II</abbr></b> served participants aged <span class="nobr">14–18.</span> Teachers helped students to develop employment and other plans, and referred students for benefits analysis and advice.</li>
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<li><b>Phase <abbr title="three">III</abbr></b> served participants aged <span class="nobr">19–21.</span> Teachers and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> staff helped students to develop vocational profiles and create customized employment plans (including a budget for needed job supports). Staff also developed an initial benefits analysis and work incentives plan with the student, and arranged a One Stop Center visit.</li>
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<li><b>Phase <abbr title="four">IV</abbr></b> served participants aged <span class="nobr">22–25.</span> <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> staff continued to provide Phase <abbr title="one">I</abbr>–<abbr title="three">III</abbr> services as needed to youths who had exited school.</li>
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</ul>
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<p>Each phase involved developing an individualized plan for targeted employment. In Phase <abbr title="one">I</abbr>, participants developed a vision of future work and a vocational plan. In Phases <abbr title="two">II</abbr>–<abbr title="four">IV</abbr>, participants designed a plan to prepare for or obtain employment (or self-employment). The plan described needed services and supports. It also identified desired employment outcomes that emerged from the discovery process, which explored the student's interests, preferred conditions of employment, and potential workplace contributions. The tasks that a student could offer an employer became the basis for customizing a potential job. Customized employment planning enabled <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> staff to identify potential employers by matching the student's interests with the tasks required by the employer. <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> staff also apprised participants of affiliated services from sources such as local One Stop Centers and assisted them in using such supports.</p>
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<p>In Phase <abbr title="two">II</abbr>, the student, family, and teacher shared in deciding which work preparation activities to pursue. In Phase <abbr title="three">III</abbr>, the student devised a budget to identify supports, services, and expenses necessary to prepare for employment, as well as potential funding sources to help manage the costs. <abbr class="spell">MDRS</abbr> approved modest funding for participants' self-directed efforts to obtain uniforms, state picture identification cards, and birth certificates; develop visual, vocational, and representational profiles or portfolios; procure job development and coaching services; pay certain transportation, medical screening, and tuition costs; and purchase small business start-up supplies. Student budgets emphasized the shared role of government and personal resources.</p>
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<p>In the fourth year of the project, <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> participants enrolled in a program in which <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr>s provided a savings incentive comprising a $4-for-$1 match (up to a maximum of $1,000) for personal savings dedicated to funding postsecondary education, self-employment, or a first-time home. Although <abbr class="spell">MDRS</abbr> administered the program, it included private-sector partners.</p>
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<h2>Statistics</h2>
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<p>In this section, we present statistics on the characteristics of the youth served by Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> and on the services provided by the projects. We also present statistics on earnings and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program participation for up to 5 years after the youths enrolled in the projects.</p>
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<h3>Bridges</h3>
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<p>Although Bridges served over 500 youths from 2003 through 2009, only 495 of them had verifiable Social Security Numbers (<abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s).<sup><a href="#mn10" id="mt10">10</a></sup> Table 2 presents client characteristics. Bridges served more males than females (56 percent versus 44 percent). About 20 percent of the youths reported an intellectual disability as their primary disability; however, not all youths have a disability listed in <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> records. Most of the youths who consented to be in the program were aged 18 or older at enrollment.<sup><a href="#mn11" id="mt11">11</a></sup> When they first entered the Bridges program, most youths were in school (80 percent); by the time they exited Bridges, half of the youths were out of school (not shown).</p>
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<div class="table" id="table2">
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<table>
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 2. </span>Demographic characteristics of Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> participants</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:18em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="2" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
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<thead>
|
|
<tr>
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|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" scope="colgroup">Characteristic</th>
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<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup"> Bridges</th>
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<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup"> <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr></th>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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|
<th scope="col">Percentage distribution</th>
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<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
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<th scope="col">Percentage distribution</th>
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<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
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|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
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|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Sex</th>
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<td colspan="4"></td>
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|
</tr>
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<tr>
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|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Male</th>
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|
<td>55.8</td>
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|
<td>2.2</td>
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|
<td>61.4</td>
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<td>3.6</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Female</th>
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<td>44.2</td>
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|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>38.6</td>
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|
<td>3.6</td>
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</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Diagnosis</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
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|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Intellectual disabilities</th>
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<td>20.2</td>
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<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>26.6</td>
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<td>3.3</td>
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|
</tr>
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|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Other mental disorders</th>
|
|
<td>12.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
<td>12</td>
|
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<td>2.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Nervous system</th>
|
|
<td>5.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
<td>9.2</td>
|
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<td>2.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Musculoskeletal system</th>
|
|
<td>0.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Other <sup>a</sup></th>
|
|
<td>16.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td>17.9</td>
|
|
<td>2.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Not identified on <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> records <sup>b</sup></th>
|
|
<td>45.1</td>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>34.2</td>
|
|
<td>3.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Age at enrollment</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">15 or younger</th>
|
|
<td>8.5</td>
|
|
<td>1.3</td>
|
|
<td>47.8</td>
|
|
<td>3.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">16</th>
|
|
<td>8.9</td>
|
|
<td>1.3</td>
|
|
<td>9.2</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">17</th>
|
|
<td>15.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>14.7</td>
|
|
<td>2.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">18 or older</th>
|
|
<td>67.5</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>28.3</td>
|
|
<td>3.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Number of participants</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="2">495</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="2">184</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="5">SOURCE: Authors' calculations based on <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project administrative records.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="5">NOTE: Rounded components of percentage distributions do not necessarily sum to 100.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="5">a. None of the other diagnoses comprised more than 6 percent of the sample.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="5">b. The percentage with no disability is not the same as the percentage who were not receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> (Table 4), because some youths received <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> as a dependent and thus would not have a disability listed in Social Security administrative records.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
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|
<p>Youths participating in Bridges received a variety of services, as shown in the tabulation below. Among the 81 percent of youths who received any of the 11 specific services identified in the data, the most common was job training (78 percent), followed by prevocational training (70 percent), living skills training (69 percent), and job placement services (59 percent). However, many youths received other services, ranging from legal aid (2 percent) to on-the-job support (47 percent).</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="tabulation1">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:18em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Type of service</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Clients served (%)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Any </th>
|
|
<td>80.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Job training</th>
|
|
<td>78.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Prevocational training</th>
|
|
<td>69.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Living skills training</th>
|
|
<td>69.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Job placement</th>
|
|
<td>58.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">On-the-job support or extra training</th>
|
|
<td>47.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Testing or evaluation</th>
|
|
<td>46.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Financial assistance</th>
|
|
<td>31.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Health services</th>
|
|
<td>26.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Counseling or therapy</th>
|
|
<td>23.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Mental health services</th>
|
|
<td>16.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Legal or advocacy services</th>
|
|
<td>2.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="onlyNote" colspan="2">SOURCE: Authors' calculations based on Social Security administrative record extracts and Bridges management files. </td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>The majority of Bridges youth received either <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments (55 percent) or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits (3 percent) at the time of enrollment (Table 3). Five years after enrollment, 70 percent of Bridges participants received <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments and 30 percent received <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits (18 percent received concurrent benefits). The increase in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt is common after age 18, when <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> treats parental income differently in determining countable income. Much of the increase in <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits resulted from youths becoming eligible for benefits on their own record as workers; <span class="nobr">two-thirds</span> of those receiving <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> did so as a worker. Although individuals younger than 31 have lower earnings requirements to qualify for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> worker benefits, this finding still demonstrates a positive step into the workforce for youths who otherwise would not have promising employment prospects.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table3">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 3. </span>Percent of <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> clients receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits at time of enrollment and 5 years later </caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:12em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="4" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" id="c1">Project, program type, and status</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c2">Month of enrollment</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" id="c3">Five years after enrollment</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th id="c4" headers="c2">Percent</th>
|
|
<th id="c5" headers="c2">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th id="c6" headers="c3">Percent</th>
|
|
<th id="c7" headers="c3">Standard error</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r1" headers="c1">Bridges</th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r2" headers="r1 c1"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 c2 c4">54.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 c2 c5">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 c3 c6">70.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 c3 c7">2.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r3" headers="r1 c1"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 c2 c4">3.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 c2 c5">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 c3 c6">29.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 c3 c7">2.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r4" headers="r1 r3 c1"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> worker</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 r4 c2 c4">1.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 r4 c2 c5">0.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 r4 c3 c6">20.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 r4 c3 c7">2.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r5" headers="r1 r3 c1"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> child</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 r5 c2 c4">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 r5 c2 c5">0.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 r5 c3 c6">9.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 r5 c3 c7">1.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r6" headers="r1 c1">Either <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r6 c2 c4">55.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r6 c2 c5">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r6 c3 c6">82.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r6 c3 c7">2.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r7" headers="r1 c1">Both <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c4">2.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2 c5">0.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c6">17.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3 c7">2.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r8" headers="r1 c1">Deceased</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r8 c2 c4">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r8 c2 c5">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r8 c3 c6">0.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r8 c3 c7">0.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r9" headers="r1 c1">Number</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="2">495</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="2">360</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r10" headers="c1"><abbr>MYTI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td colspan="4"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r11" headers="r10 c1"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 c2 c4">65.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 c2 c5">3.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 c3 c6">62.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 c3 c7">5.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r10 c1"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 c2 c4">10.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 c2 c5">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 c3 c6">24.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 c3 c7">4.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r13" headers="r10 r12 c1"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> worker</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 r13 c2 c4">0.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 r13 c2 c5">0.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 r13 c3 c6">11.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 r13 c3 c7">3.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r14" headers="r10 r12 c1"><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> child</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 r14 c2 c4">10.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 r14 c2 c5">2.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 r14 c3 c6">12.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r12 r14 c3 c7">3.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r15" headers="r10 c1">Either <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r15 c2 c4">68.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r15 c2 c5">3.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r15 c3 c6">71.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r15 c3 c7">5.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r16" headers="r10 c1">Both <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 c2 c4">7.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 c2 c5">2.0</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 c3 c6">15.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 c3 c7">4.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r17" headers="r10 c1">Deceased</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r17 c2 c4">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r17 c2 c5">. . .</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r17 c3 c6">5.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r17 c3 c7">2.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r18" headers="r10 c1">Number</th>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="2">184</td>
|
|
<td class="center" colspan="2">78</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="5">SOURCE: Authors' calculations based on Social Security administrative record extracts.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="5">NOTE: . . . = not applicable.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>About 60 percent of participants had earnings in the years following their enrollment in Bridges (Table 4). The earnings rate peaked in the first year of participation (69 percent) then dropped in succeeding years because of staggered enrollment. This earnings pattern was not unexpected, given the participants' age range and the timing of program services. Five years after enrollment, almost <span class="nobr">one-half</span> (44 percent) of clients earned at least $1,020.<sup><a href="#mn12" id="mt12">12</a></sup> Among those youths, average earnings 5 years after enrollment were over $9,300.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table4">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 4. </span>Clients with earnings, by project and years before or after enrollment</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="5" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="5" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" scope="colgroup">Project and years before or after enrollment</th>
|
|
<th colspan="5" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Clients with any earnings </th>
|
|
<th colspan="5" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Clients with earnings of $1,020 or more</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th scope="col">Number</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percent </th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Mean earnings <sup>a</sup></th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Number</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percent</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Mean earnings <sup>a</sup></th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Standard error</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Bridges</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">-2</th>
|
|
<td>495</td>
|
|
<td>32.3</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>741</td>
|
|
<td>102</td>
|
|
<td>71</td>
|
|
<td>14.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>4,667</td>
|
|
<td>506</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">-1</th>
|
|
<td>495</td>
|
|
<td>43.6</td>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>1,063</td>
|
|
<td>114</td>
|
|
<td>101</td>
|
|
<td>20.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.8</td>
|
|
<td>4,782</td>
|
|
<td>375</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">0</th>
|
|
<td>495</td>
|
|
<td>60.4</td>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>1,561</td>
|
|
<td>128</td>
|
|
<td>158</td>
|
|
<td>31.9</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>4,500</td>
|
|
<td>282</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">1</th>
|
|
<td>494</td>
|
|
<td>69.2</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>2,247</td>
|
|
<td>185</td>
|
|
<td>170</td>
|
|
<td>34.4</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>6,183</td>
|
|
<td>385</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">2</th>
|
|
<td>494</td>
|
|
<td>65.4</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>2,440</td>
|
|
<td>214</td>
|
|
<td>171</td>
|
|
<td>34.6</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>6,769</td>
|
|
<td>462</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">3</th>
|
|
<td>423</td>
|
|
<td>57.0</td>
|
|
<td>2.4</td>
|
|
<td>3,029</td>
|
|
<td>251</td>
|
|
<td>169</td>
|
|
<td>40.0</td>
|
|
<td>2.4</td>
|
|
<td>7,383</td>
|
|
<td>455</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">4</th>
|
|
<td>357</td>
|
|
<td>60.8</td>
|
|
<td>2.6</td>
|
|
<td>1,658</td>
|
|
<td>253</td>
|
|
<td>57</td>
|
|
<td>16.0</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td>10,064</td>
|
|
<td>1,018</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">5</th>
|
|
<td>248</td>
|
|
<td>58.5</td>
|
|
<td>3.1</td>
|
|
<td>4,127</td>
|
|
<td>413</td>
|
|
<td>108</td>
|
|
<td>43.5</td>
|
|
<td>3.2</td>
|
|
<td>9,358</td>
|
|
<td>670</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">MYTI</th>
|
|
<td colspan="10"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">-2</th>
|
|
<td>184</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">-1</th>
|
|
<td>184</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">0</th>
|
|
<td>184</td>
|
|
<td>15.2</td>
|
|
<td>2.7</td>
|
|
<td>216</td>
|
|
<td>76</td>
|
|
<td>10</td>
|
|
<td>5.4</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td>3,236</td>
|
|
<td>1,023</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">1</th>
|
|
<td>184</td>
|
|
<td>23.4</td>
|
|
<td>3.1</td>
|
|
<td>441</td>
|
|
<td>160</td>
|
|
<td>16</td>
|
|
<td>8.7</td>
|
|
<td>2.1</td>
|
|
<td>4,747</td>
|
|
<td>1,495</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">2</th>
|
|
<td>184</td>
|
|
<td>26.1</td>
|
|
<td>3.2</td>
|
|
<td>746</td>
|
|
<td>176</td>
|
|
<td>26</td>
|
|
<td>14.1</td>
|
|
<td>2.6</td>
|
|
<td>5,129</td>
|
|
<td>841</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">3</th>
|
|
<td>132</td>
|
|
<td>19.7</td>
|
|
<td>3.5</td>
|
|
<td>555</td>
|
|
<td>141</td>
|
|
<td>16</td>
|
|
<td>12.1</td>
|
|
<td>2.9</td>
|
|
<td>4,212</td>
|
|
<td>635</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">4</th>
|
|
<td>77</td>
|
|
<td>28.6</td>
|
|
<td>5.2</td>
|
|
<td>786</td>
|
|
<td>393</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">5</th>
|
|
<td>36</td>
|
|
<td>30.6</td>
|
|
<td>7.8</td>
|
|
<td>664</td>
|
|
<td>260</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
<td>b</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="11">SOURCE: Authors' calculations based on Social Security administrative record extracts.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="11">NOTE: The $1,020 threshold represents the sum of earnings an individual can earn in a year, applying both the general ($20) and earned ($65) income exclusions, that can be disregarded from countable income under <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program rules. </td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="11">a. In 2010 dollars.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="11">b. Suppressed because of small sample size (less than 2 percent of sample; fewer than 10 individuals).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>Among participants who received <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits, 56 percent reported earnings to <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> while enrolled in Bridges (Table 5). Additionally, 58 percent used <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s work incentives or the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waivers. The number of clients using the work incentives could exceed that of clients reporting earnings because not all work incentives required actual work. Of all work incentives and waivers, the general earned income exclusion (<abbr class="spell">GEIE</abbr>) waiver was the most commonly used (39 percent),<sup> </sup>although a combined 42 percent used the student earned income exclusion (<abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr>), either as the standard incentive (26 percent) or the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waiver (16 percent).</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table5">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 5. </span><abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> client use of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> work incentives and waivers (in percent)</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:20em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:6em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Incentive </th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Bridges</th>
|
|
<th scope="col"><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr></th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Positive earnings (reported to <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>)</th>
|
|
<td>56.1</td>
|
|
<td>30.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Any <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> work incentive or <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waiver </th>
|
|
<td>57.8</td>
|
|
<td>38.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr> (standard incentive)</th>
|
|
<td>25.7</td>
|
|
<td>15.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr> (<abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waiver)</th>
|
|
<td>16.2</td>
|
|
<td>3.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr></th>
|
|
<td>0.3</td>
|
|
<td>20.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">GEIE</abbr> waiver</th>
|
|
<td>39.4</td>
|
|
<td>21.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><abbr>PASS</abbr> (standard incentive)</th>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><abbr>PASS</abbr> (<abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waiver)</th>
|
|
<td>30.0</td>
|
|
<td>0.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Continuing Disability Review/Age-18 redetermination (Section 301)</th>
|
|
<td>2.2</td>
|
|
<td>8.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="3">SOURCE: Martinez and others (2010).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="3">NOTES: The sample sizes are 358 for Bridges and 80 for <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>. Because these samples comprise only <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries in <span class="nobr">2003–2008,</span> they differ from those in the article's other tables.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="3"><abbr>PASS</abbr> = plan to achieve self-support.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<h3><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr></h3>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> originally proposed to serve 319 students, but the goal was adjusted after Hurricane Katrina hit the project area in August 2005; ultimately, <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> served 184 youths with verified <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s. <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> served more males than females (<a href="#table2">Table 2</a>), 61 percent versus 39 percent.</p>
|
|
<p>Participating schools were to provide transition services that included exposure to work experiences for special-education students. <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>'s objectives included enabling participants to reach <span class="nobr">short-term</span> outcomes such as high school completion or enrollment in postsecondary education. Some students pursued a Mississippi "occupational diploma," which has employment requirements. Over the course of the project, 61 participants received a certificate of completion;<sup><a href="#mn13" id="mt13">13</a></sup> 20 received an occupational diploma; 3 pursued a general equivalency diploma (<abbr class="spell">GED</abbr>), which 2 had attained by the time we compiled our data; and 2 obtained certified nursing assistant certificates (not shown).</p>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> staff helped youths obtain employment experiences as they moved through the project's four service phases. Overall, 27 percent of youths completed Phase <abbr title="one">I</abbr>, as shown in the tabulation below; however, the majority of youths were served in Phase <abbr title="two">II</abbr> (63 percent). About 20 percent of the youths were served in each of Phases <abbr title="three">III</abbr> and <abbr title="four">IV</abbr>.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="tabulation2">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:14em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col"><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> phase</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Clients served (%)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Phase <abbr title="one">I</abbr>: ages <span class="nobr">10–13</span></th>
|
|
<td>26.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Phase <abbr title="two">II</abbr>: ages <span class="nobr">14–18</span></th>
|
|
<td>63.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Phase <abbr title="three">III</abbr>: ages <span class="nobr">19–21<sup> a</sup></span></th>
|
|
<td>19.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Phase <abbr title="four">IV</abbr>: ages <span class="nobr">22–25 <sup>a</sup></span></th>
|
|
<td>20.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="2">SOURCE: <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> management files.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="2">NOTE: Youths advanced their career development by going to the next phase at the appropriate age. Because youths are counted in each phase of the project in which they participated, percentages sum to more than 100.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="2">a. Phases <abbr title="two">II</abbr> and <abbr title="four">IV</abbr> represent community-based transition services. </td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>The percentage of youths served by <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> who were <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> recipients was higher than that for Bridges (<a href="#table3">Table 3</a>). At the time of enrollment, over 68 percent of <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> participants received either <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>. The majority of these youths (66 percent) received <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>, 10 percent received <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>, and 8 percent received both. Twelve percent were receiving <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits on their own record as workers at the end of the project.</p>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> youths were less likely than Bridges clients to have positive earnings after enrollment (<a href="#table4">Table 4</a>). In the year of enrollment, 15 percent of <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> youths had earnings; after 5 years, 31 percent had earnings. Few youths earned more than $1,020 in any year, which is not surprising given that <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> participants were generally younger than Bridges participants; however, among those who earned more than $1,020 three years after enrollment, average earnings exceeded $4,200.</p>
|
|
<p>As the first project to establish <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr>s, <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> provided a model for incorporating <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr>s into other <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects (Martinez and others 2008). Twenty percent of <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> youth receiving <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits enrolled in an <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr> to either buy a home or start a business (<a href="#table5">Table 5</a>). Participants with an <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr> deposited their earnings in a savings account, met with a benefits counselor, and attended financial literacy classes. Overall, 39 percent of <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> youths who were <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries used a work incentive or waiver between 2003 and 2008. The most commonly used was the <abbr class="spell">GEIE</abbr> waiver (21 percent), followed closely by <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr>s.</p>
|
|
<h2>Case Studies</h2>
|
|
<p>The following case studies illustrate how Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> each helped one of their <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants achieve educational and employment outcomes, reducing reliance on disability benefits. Although all local sites within each project had successful participants, the highlighted youths come from the Whittier, California and Jackson County, Mississippi sites. Their names have been changed to preserve their anonymity.</p>
|
|
<h3>Bridges</h3>
|
|
<p>Roberto, who has cerebral palsy, enrolled in Bridges at age 24. A recent high school graduate, Roberto came to the Whittier Union High School District's Employment Network (<abbr class="spell">EN</abbr>) because, as an <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipient, he had received a Ticket under the Ticket-to-Work program and hoped the <abbr class="spell">EN</abbr> could help him find a job.<sup><a href="#mn14" id="mt14">14</a></sup> Ultimately, the <abbr class="spell">EN</abbr> staff determined he was a good candidate for the Bridges project. Bridges staff met with Roberto and his family to identify his interests and the skills he could bring to a job. During a person-centered planning session, Roberto suggested seeking a job that would use his computer, organizational, and communication skills. To assist him, Bridges provided benefits counseling, job development and placement services, and intensive service coordination.</p>
|
|
<p>Bridges staff helped Roberto find a job as a customer service representative at a closet design company. His duties include receiving phone calls from customers who wish to place an order or schedule a renovation. Bridges staff explained to Roberto how earnings would affect his benefits and how to report wages to <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. While he participated in Bridges, Roberto used the $3-for-$4 <abbr class="spell">GEIE</abbr> waiver to substantially reduce his countable earnings. He also attended a local community college where he took general education, computer science, and other courses.</p>
|
|
<p>Roberto continued receiving benefits counseling and employment services from Bridges staff after exiting the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> program by assigning his Ticket to Bridges as his <abbr class="spell">EN</abbr>. He identified a teleservice center position at <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> as his employment goal in a follow-up person-centered planning session.</p>
|
|
<h3><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr></h3>
|
|
<p>Isabella, who has an intellectual disability, enrolled in <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> at age 19. In a vocational class at her Jackson County high school, she exhibited strong interest and aptitude in industrial arts. Isabella developed a love for woodworking from industrial arts class and working after school in her uncle's workshop, where she helped him sand, stain, repair, and refinish cabinets. Her teacher and transition specialist met with Isabella and her family to develop customized employment opportunities that matched her interests and abilities. During a planning meeting, Isabella expressed interest in finding <span class="nobr">full-time</span> work that involved tasks in woodworking or the building trades. In class and at her uncle's cabinet shop, she displayed cooperative work habits, a willingness to learn new tasks, dependability, punctuality, teamwork, and ability to follow rules.</p>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>'s transition specialist presented Isabella's portfolio to a lumber and supply company that employed over 500 workers. She was hired for <span class="nobr">full-time</span> work with benefits, and an experienced coworker trained her. In the first year of employment, <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> staff assisted her in learning new job tasks, and helped her to complete continuing education courses and general activities at the community college. As a <span class="nobr">full-time</span> student younger than 22, Isabella used the standard <abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr> incentive to exclude her earnings from countable income. In addition, while enrolled in <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>, Isabella used the <abbr class="spell">GEIE</abbr> $3-for-$4 waiver once her earnings exceeded the <abbr class="spell">SEIE</abbr> exclusion maximum; doing so substantially reduced her countable earnings.</p>
|
|
<p>With help from <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>'s benefits specialist, Isabella opened an <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr> to save toward purchasing a home and began attending financial literacy classes. In addition, Isabella regularly talked with the benefits specialist about her finances. They discussed work incentives, <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waivers, and monthly wage reporting. The benefits specialist also taught Isabella how to keep track of her paystubs and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments. Because of her increase in earnings, her <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments stopped. Isabella achieved her goal of <span class="nobr">full-time</span> employment.</p>
|
|
<h2>Sustainability</h2>
|
|
<p>Both projects continued to implement some aspects of their services after <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> funding ended. In this section we highlight select activities in each project that demonstrate the longer-term system changes made possible by <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>.</p>
|
|
<h3>Bridges</h3>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> funding for Bridges as a <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project ended in 2008.<sup><a href="#mn15" id="mt15">15</a></sup> Since then, Bridges has sought other funding to continue providing project services. Staff identified several potential resources and applied for multiple grants to ensure continued service. Several sites have also become private nonprofit agencies to increase the scope of grants for which they can compete. Their efforts have included participation in the 2009 American Recovery & Reinvestment Act's Summer Youth Employment Program in partnership with the local Workforce Investment Boards.</p>
|
|
<p>The Bridges <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> experience encouraged seven school districts in California to become <abbr class="spell">EN</abbr>s in the Ticket to Work program. The <abbr class="spell">EN</abbr>s can serve clients aged 18 and older. The <abbr class="spell">EN</abbr> income enables the sites to sustain the additional activities without <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> funds from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. For example, Career Connection, a part of the Whittier Union High School District, has been an <abbr class="spell">EN</abbr> since 2003. Since Bridges services ended, 22 <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> youths have assigned their Tickets to Career Connection for additional employment supports at their former high school, enabling service continuity and uninterrupted partnerships with educators.</p>
|
|
<p>The Whittier Union High School District and a consortium comprising three other school districts have received Projects with Industry<sup><a href="#mn16" id="mt16">16</a></sup> grants to continue to provide some services to Bridges participants. The consortium districts have also received <abbr class="spell">US</abbr> Department of Transportation grants to provide transportation options in rural areas and at nontraditional public transportation hours. Each of the sites has also been able to expand its Transition Partnership Project to include benefits advice and service coordination for youths with mental health conditions.</p>
|
|
<h3><abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr></h3>
|
|
<p>The <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> project sought to identify <span class="nobr">post-<abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr></span> services to be sustained and to build skills related to employability. The local school districts adopted many of the interventions implemented in the project, such as the use of transition phases and customized employment strategies. Although the school districts and <abbr class="spell">MDRS</abbr> no longer have <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> funding, they still offer those services in different ways: Each <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> staff member was either retained to provide ongoing project services within an agency or school, or was hired for other positions that would offer similar services.</p>
|
|
<p>Although other schools are using <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> services, it has not yet been determined if they are including them in their performance standards. In conjunction with the University of Southern Mississippi, the Jackson County School District hosted a conference to share its transition services with approximately 20 other schools, mostly in Mississippi, but also from Kentucky and Florida.</p>
|
|
<p>In <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>'s last year, the Jackson County School District created a team of five transition specialists to provide <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>-style services for both the school district and the vocational rehabilitation transition program. Transition team members were assigned to four geographic areas of the county; one person visited each high school while two of the transition specialists provided services in a <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>-established "community classroom." After <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> concluded, these services continued at local school districts and <abbr class="spell">MDRS</abbr> offices in a program jointly funded by <abbr class="spell">MDRS</abbr> and the state education department.</p>
|
|
<p>Local Workforce Investment Network (<abbr>WIN</abbr>) job centers offered youths a set of activities during teacher-led tours of the centers. Both the Pascagoula and Gulfport centers welcomed students during the years <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> operated. This connection will continue while teachers have the funds to offer field trips for their students; however, job center usage will vary by school district. Mentoring, established in <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>'s final year in Jackson County, has been included in students' school plans, and availability has expanded to include students at risk of dropping out. At the superintendent's request, peer mentoring has continued in Jackson County using guidelines established under <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr>. The Harrison County School District also developed a mentoring program while participating in <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> and has continued some form of mentoring through a new program in targeted schools that connects students with caring adults or peers.</p>
|
|
<h2>Discussion and Conclusions</h2>
|
|
<p>The Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> projects implemented enhanced transition services and used <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> waivers of <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program rules to help youths achieve education and employment goals. From December 2003 to September 2009, Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> staff provided youths with (1) the support to find and keep a job; (2) information on employment's effects on Social Security benefits; and (3) first steps toward building the capacity for <span class="nobr">long-term</span> competitive employment.</p>
|
|
<p>Bridges staff directly provided over 80 percent of the youth participants with employment services, service coordination, and benefits counseling. After 5 years, almost 60 percent of Bridges participants had earnings. <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> served younger clients with more significant disabilities; 39 percent received community-based transition services (Phase <abbr title="three">III</abbr> and <abbr title="four">IV</abbr>) and 31 percent had earnings after 5 years.</p>
|
|
<p>Although the statistics reflect many successes, the projects were too short to yield <span class="nobr">long-term</span> findings. The <span class="nobr">short-term</span> accomplishments of Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> youths may lead them, perhaps many years later, to leave (or never enroll in) <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> plans to follow <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> participants for longer periods to detect any lasting impacts on <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> or <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> receipt and earnings. Over the next several years, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> intends to publish reports on short- and <span class="nobr">long-term</span> impacts.</p>
|
|
<p>To date, Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> have offered several lessons on successful service implementation. One lesson is that strong partnerships are instrumental in successfully serving youth in transition. The Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> projects built upon existing transition programs to demonstrate how a variety of services from multiple partners can effectively coalesce. Another lesson is that intervention components should be clearly defined and linked to measurable outcomes, which should be monitored to ensure a consistent focus on program goals. At the outset of the Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> projects, staff used a management information system to record the demographics, services provided, and action plans for each youth; this system allowed staff to identify accomplishments incrementally. A third lesson is that support services (such as case management, benefits counseling, and self-determination) provided in conjunction with employment services can produce successful employment outcomes. Benefits counseling enabled <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> participants to learn about the <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr> and then, while in high school, use the <abbr class="spell">IDA</abbr> and attain financial literacy. In this regard, the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> has confirmed how beneficial asset development accounts can be to low-income individuals.</p>
|
|
<p>Lastly, the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects developed and implemented practices to support postsecondary education and employment. Apart from the waivers, which increased the incentives for employment and savings among <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients, Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> created a system that provided direct delivery and service coordination in the school system. Although that change is directly attributable to the Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> projects, and can potentially eliminate a significant barrier to work for many young <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients, it does not necessitate a change to <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> policy. By breaking down the silos in which different agencies work, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> and its community partners in <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> sites were able to substantially change the transition process and dramatically affect beneficiaries' lives.</p>
|
|
<p>Although the outcomes reported in this article are not causal, they do suggest that youth with disabilities can enter the workforce and achieve some self-sufficiency. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> continued the <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> project in six other sites that implemented a random-assignment research design. Youths participating in those sites receive the same waivers and similar services as those in Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> (for more information on those sites, see Fraker and Rangarajan 2009). The final results from those six sites, available in 2014, will provide a deeper context for the Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> results reported here.</p>
|
|
<div id="notes">
|
|
<h2>Notes</h2>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt1" id="mn1">1</a> Most youths are eligible for a variety of education-based disability services until they reach age 22 or receive a high school diploma.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt2" id="mn2">2</a> <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> redetermines <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> eligibility when a child recipient attains age 18. In addition, all recipients are subject to periodic continuing disability reviews to ensure they still meet the disability standards for eligibility.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt3" id="mn3">3</a> This estimate, although still the best available, is somewhat dated. The diagnosis mix for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> child recipients has changed since the study was conducted and numerous policy changes, such as establishing <span class="nobr">age-18</span> redeterminations, have occurred. It is not clear how these and other changes may have affected average time on the program.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt4" id="mn4">4</a> See Martinez and others (2008) for information on the other <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> sites. We focus on Bridges and <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> because six of the remaining eight projects used random-assignment designs and will be formally evaluated by Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.; see Fraker and Rangarajan (2009) for more information on that evaluation. The other two projects terminated before completion.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt5" id="mn5">5</a> <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> is a means-tested cash transfer program for the elderly and for individuals with disabilities. <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> is an insurance program for individuals with disabilities and their dependents. <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> use the same definitions of disability for adults: The individual must have a medically determinable disability that is expected to last (or has lasted) at least 12 continuous months or to result in death and prevents him or her from doing any substantial gainful activity. To be eligible for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> if younger than 18, the individual's disability must result in marked and severe functional limitations (as opposed to preventing substantial gainful activity). To receive <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits, an individual must be insured by accumulating a certain level of lifetime earnings called quarters of coverage or be the dependent of someone who has accrued enough quarters or coverage. <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> has no work history requirement.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt6" id="mn6">6</a> Those techniques are used to help youths discover their interests. For example, a youth may create a portfolio with information and images about potential careers and other goals.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt7" id="mn7">7</a> <abbr class="spell">MYTI</abbr> participants and staff describe their experiences with customized employment at http://www.dol.gov/dol/media/webcast/20110610-odep-ce/.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt8" id="mn8">8</a> The benefits counselor was based at a local One Stop Service Center. Such centers were established under the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 to provide employers and job seekers with mutual access to workforce services.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt9" id="mn9">9</a> Regional occupational programs are public education programs that provide hands-on career preparation and skill training for particular jobs.</p>
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<p><a href="#mt10" id="mn10">10</a> The verification process involved checking the name, date of birth, sex, and <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> reported to the project. Unverified <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s may still be legitimate, and having one did not disqualify a youth from participating in <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr>. However, we excluded youths with unverified <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s from this study because their <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s would not match their actual program history or earnings. The youths also had to be enrolled in or after 2003 to be included in these analyses.</p>
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<p><a href="#mt11" id="mn11">11</a> Although most <abbr class="spell">YTD</abbr> projects are limited to youths aged <span class="nobr">14–25,</span> the earliest projects, such as Bridges, served a broader age range.</p>
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<p><a href="#mt12" id="mn12">12</a> The $1,020 threshold represents the sum of the monthly earnings an individual can earn in a year (applying both the $20 general and the $65 earned income exclusions in each of the 12 months) that can be disregarded from countable income under <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program rules. Although the values relevant to calculating <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments can vary from month to month, extracts of earnings data are only available on a yearly basis. So, although this "annualized" amount does not directly correspond to any programmatic value, it provides a useful approximation of earnings received.</p>
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<p><a href="#mt13" id="mn13">13</a> The Mississippi Department of Education issued a special diploma stating that a client successfully completed an individualized education plan.</p>
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<p><a href="#mt14" id="mn14">14</a> The Ticket-to-Work program is a free, voluntary program for Social Security and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients with disabilities. Participants can assign their tickets to one of several types of approved organizations (including <abbr class="spell">EN</abbr>s) that have agreed with <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> to provide employment services. The <abbr class="spell">EN</abbr> receives payment from <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> when the beneficiary meets specific employment goals.</p>
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<p><a href="#mt15" id="mn15">15</a> Bridges operated under a <span class="nobr">no-cost</span> extension through September 2009.</p>
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<p><a href="#mt16" id="mn16">16</a> Projects with Industry is a <abbr class="spell">US</abbr> Department of Education program that provides grants for job development, placement, career advancement, and training for individuals with disabilities.</p>
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</div>
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<div id="references">
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<h2>References</h2>
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<p>[<abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr>] California Department of Rehabilitation. 2009. <i>Bridges to Self-Sufficiency. Bridges Youth Transition Demonstration Grant Final Report. </i>Sacramento, <abbr title="California">CA</abbr>: <abbr title="C DOR">CDOR</abbr>.</p>
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<p>Fraker, Thomas, and Anu Rangarajan. 2009. "The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects." <i>Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation</i> 30(3): <span class="nobr">223–240.</span></p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr>] Government Accountability Office. 2009. <i>Higher Education and Disability: Education Needs a Coordinated Approach to Improve Its Assistance to Schools in Supporting Students.</i> <abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr>-10-33. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">GAO</abbr>.</p>
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<p>Loprest, Pamela J., and David C. Wittenburg. 2005. "Choices, Challenges, and Options: Child <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Recipients Preparing for the Transition to Adult Life." Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: The Urban Institute.</p>
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<p>Martinez, John, Thomas Fraker, Michelle Manno, Peter Baird, Arif Mamun, Bonnie O'Day, Anu Rangarajan, and David Wittenburg. 2010. <i>The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Implementation Lessons from the Original Projects.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research, <abbr title="Incorporated">Inc.</abbr></p>
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<p>Martinez, John, Michelle S. Manno, Peter Baird, Thomas Fraker, Todd Honeycutt, Arif Mamun, Bonnie O'Day, and Anu Rangarajan. 2008. <i>The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Profiles of the Random Assignment Projects.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.</p>
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<p>Rupp, Kalman, and Charles G. Scott. 1995. "Length of Stay on the Supplemental Security Income Disability Program." <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 58(1): <span class="nobr">29–47.</span></p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>] Social Security Administration. 2012. <i><a href="/policy/docs/statcomps/ssi_asr/2011/index.html"><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Annual Statistical Report, 2011</a>.</i> <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Publication <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">13-11827.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</p>
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