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<div id="hLogo"><a class="navLogo" href="/policy/index.html">Social Security</a><a class="navSearch" href="https://search.ssa.gov/search?affiliate=ssa">SEARCH</a></div>
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<h1 itemprop="headline">Social Security Disability Insurance at Age 60: Does It Still Reflect Congress' Original Intent?</h1>
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<div id="hByline">by <span itemprop="author">Paul O'Leary, Elisa Walker, and Emily Roessel</span><br>Issue Paper <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2015-01</span> (released September 2015)</div>
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<div id="breadcrumbs" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/BreadcrumbList">You are here: <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="/" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name">Social Security Administration</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="1" /></span> > <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="/policy/index.html" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name">Research, Statistics & Policy Analysis</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="2" /></span> > <span itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ListItem"><a href="/policy/research.html?type=Issue%20Paper" itemprop="item"><span itemprop="name">Issue Papers</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="3" /></span></div>
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<div class="innards">
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<div id="relatedInline">
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<h4>Related Content</h4>
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<div class="rcItems">
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<p>Statistical Fact Sheets: <a href="/policy/docs/factsheets/cong-stats-DI/2014/index.html">Congressional Statistics: Disability Insurance for December 2014</a></p>
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</div>
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</div>
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<div class="introBox">
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<p id="synopsis" itemprop="description">Congress established the Social Security Disability Insurance (<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>) program in 1956, after more than 20 years of debate. From the outset of the debate, however, there had been general agreement that the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program should be for workers with substantial work histories, be funded through payroll taxes, include stringent disability criteria, provide modest benefit levels, and require return-to-work supports. Using administrative data on current <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries, this issue paper examines how the program reflects those original tenets as it nears its 60<sup>th</sup> anniversary.</p>
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<hr />
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<div class="eightypercent">
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<p>Paul O'Leary, Elisa Walker, and Emily Roessel are with the Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, Social Security Administration. Questions about the analysis should be directed to the authors at <span class="nobr">(202) 358-6227,</span> <span class="nobr">(202) 358-6220,</span> or <span class="nobr">(202) 358-6138,</span> respectively.</p>
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<p>The findings and conclusions presented in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Social Security Administration.</p>
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</div>
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<div id="errataBox">
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<p>The original version of this Issue Paper inaccurately characterized the benefit amount data in <a href="#table1">Table 1</a> and the accompanying narrative. The benefit amounts in the table and the text were described as reflecting the total amounts paid from the Disability Insurance Trust Fund. In fact, these amounts exclude various adjustments to payments, primarily in the form of retroactive payments to new awardees. Because the benefit amounts accurately reflected the payment amounts without these adjustments, they have not been changed; however, a note and a footnote in Table 1 and the accompanying narrative now clarify the distinction, and provide the amount of total benefits paid. [Posted: April 6, 2016.]</p>
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</div>
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</div>
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<h2>Background</h2>
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<div class="abbrtable">
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<table role="presentation">
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<caption>Selected Abbreviations</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:25%"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="1"></colgroup>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">AWI</abbr></td>
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<td>average wage index</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr></td>
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<td>Disability Insurance</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr></td>
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<td>National Beneficiary Survey</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr>SIPP</abbr></td>
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<td>Survey of Income and Program Participation</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr></td>
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<td>Social Security Administration</td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</div>
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<p>Federal disability benefits under the Social Security Disability Insurance (<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>) program were first authorized by the Social Security Act Amendments of 1956.<sup><a href="#mn1" id="mt1">1</a></sup> Congress debated the parameters of the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program for more than 20 years prior to its enactment. From the beginning, however, the program under discussion had five basic tenets: (1) benefits would be for individuals with established work histories who were unable to continue working because of disability; (2) benefits would be earned under the program and paid for with dedicated contributions; (3) the definition of disability would be strict, requiring a medically determinable impairment that prevented substantial work and was expected to last indefinitely; (4) benefits would be modest, providing workers who became disabled with a basic level of financial security; and (5) return to work would be encouraged and supported through the provision of vocational services. The return-to-work aspects of the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program have received considerable attention elsewhere,<sup><a href="#mn2" id="mt2">2</a></sup> but less is known about how the other concepts have shaped the program and are reflected in its present form. This issue paper uses Social Security Administration (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>) data on the current beneficiary population to examine how the first four founding principles are realized in the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program as it exists today, nearly 60 years later.</p>
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<h2>How Many People Receive <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Benefits?</h2>
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<p>In December 2014, nearly 9 million disabled workers received social insurance benefits under the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program (Table 1). Since the passage of the 1958 amendments to the Social Security Act, the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program has also provided benefits to the spouses and minor children of millions of disabled workers.<sup><a href="#mn3" id="mt3">3</a></sup> In December 2014, 1.8 million children and 148,955 spouses of disabled workers received these “auxiliary” benefits from the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Trust Fund.</p>
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<div class="table" id="table1">
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<table>
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 1. </span>Number of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries and amount of benefits paid, by benefit type, December 2014</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:18em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="4" style="width:7em"></colgroup>
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<thead>
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<tr>
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<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Number or amount</th>
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<th scope="col">Total</th>
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<th scope="col">Disabled workers</th>
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<th scope="col">Children</th>
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<th scope="col">Spouses</th>
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0 nobr" scope="row">Number of beneficiaries</th>
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<td>10,931,092</td>
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<td>8,954,518</td>
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<td>1,827,619</td>
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<td>148,955</td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0 nobr" scope="rowgroup">Average benefit amount ($)</th>
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<td colspan="4"> </td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1 nobr" scope="row">Monthly</th>
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<td>1,017</td>
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<td>1,165</td>
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<td>349</td>
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<td>315</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1 nobr" scope="row">Annual equivalent</th>
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<td>12,208</td>
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<td>13,985</td>
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<td>4,188</td>
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<td>3,774</td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Aggregate benefits paid ($ in millions)</th>
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<td colspan="4"> </td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1 nobr" scope="row">Monthly</th>
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<td>11,120</td>
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<td>10,436</td>
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<td>638</td>
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<td>47</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1 nobr" scope="row">Annual equivalent</th>
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<td><sup>a</sup> 133,442</td>
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<td>125,226</td>
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<td>7,654</td>
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<td>562</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td class="firstNote" colspan="5">SOURCE: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> <span class="nobr">(n.d. a).</span></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td class="note" colspan="5">NOTES: Benefit amounts exclude retroactive payments and other adjustments. Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td class="lastNote" colspan="5">a. Total benefit payments from the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Trust Fund in 2014, including retroactive payments and other adjustments, were $141.6 billion (see <a href="/OACT/ProgData/payment.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/OACT/ProgData/payment.html</a>). </td>
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</tr>
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</table>
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</div>
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<p>The average benefit amount for disabled workers (excluding retroactive payments, primarily to new awardees for the period between entitlement date and first benefit receipt) was about $1,165 a month in December 2014, equivalent to $13,985 a year. The combined benefits for disabled workers, their spouses, and their children were about $11.1 billion in December 2014, equivalent to about $133.4 billion over the course of a year. Including the retroactive payments and other adjustments, the aggregate income that flowed into the national economy from the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Trust Fund was $141.6 billion in 2014.</p>
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<h2><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Beneficiaries Have Significant Work and Earnings Histories</h2>
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<p>Although Congress has amended the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program many times over the years, its basic structure remains very close to that first enacted in 1956. The program was designed to provide social insurance protection for individuals with demonstrated work histories. To become insured for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits, a worker must pay into Social Security and earn work credits by accruing earnings that meet or exceed statutory thresholds. In the 1956 <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> law (as in the early years for the retirement program), a worker received one work credit for earnings of at least $50 per calendar quarter. By 2014, the earnings threshold for one credit had risen to $1,200 and was no longer tied to calendar quarters.<sup><a href="#mn4" id="mt4">4</a></sup> Workers are generally insured for benefits if they have worked and earned at least <span class="nobr">one-fourth</span> of the maximum possible work credits since reaching age 21 and at least half of the maximum possible work credits in the 10 years before disability onset. (The latter requirement is proportionally reduced for workers younger than age 31.)</p>
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<p>Most current disabled-worker beneficiaries far exceeded the minimum work-credit thresholds for eligibility, earning most of the work credits that were possible during their adult lives before becoming eligible for benefits (Chart 1). In fact, <span class="nobr">three-quarters</span> of them had earned 80 percent or more of the possible work credits since reaching age 21, and more than half had earned the maximum four work credits in each of the years between reaching age 21 and eligibility for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits. On average, current disabled-worker beneficiaries earned the equivalent of 22 years of work credits before becoming disabled. Those who became disabled at age 50 or later had earned the equivalent of more than 30 years of work credits, on average.</p>
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<div class="chartCenter">
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<div class="chart400" id="chart1">
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<div class="title">Chart 1.<br>Percentage distribution of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> disabled-worker beneficiaries, by work credits earned between age 21 and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility <sup>a</sup> (as a percentage of maximum possible work credits in that period), December 2013</div>
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<div class="scrollChart"><img src="ip2015-01-c1.gif" alt="Bar chart with tabular version below." width="346" height="270" /></div>
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<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
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<table>
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 1. </span>Percentage distribution of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> disabled-worker beneficiaries, by work credits earned between age 21 and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility <sup>a</sup> (as a percentage of maximum possible work credits in that period), December 2013</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:15em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:10em"></colgroup>
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<thead>
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<tr>
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<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Percentage of possible work credits earned</th>
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<th scope="col">Percent of beneficiaries</th>
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">100</th>
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<td>52.4</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">90–99</span></th>
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<td>12.8</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">80–89</span></th>
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<td>10.3</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">70–79</span></th>
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<td>7.9</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">60–69</span></th>
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<td>6.2</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">50–59</span></th>
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<td>4.8</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0 nobr" scope="row">Less than 50</th>
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<td>5.8</td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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<tfoot>
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<tr>
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<td class="noNotes" colspan="2"> </td>
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</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="firstNote">SOURCE: Authors' calculations based on <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2013 Disability Analysis File and 2013 Master Earnings File.</div>
|
|
<div class="note">NOTE: Rounded components of percentage distribution do not sum to 100.0.</div>
|
|
<div class="lastNote">a. “<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility” is the date on which the beneficiary became eligible for cash benefits; for beneficiaries with multiple spells, it applies only to the current period of eligibility.</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>Preaward earnings levels provide an approximate indicator of the standard of living that disabled workers had attained before serious health conditions led to their <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility. Table 2 shows that in their 5 highest-earning years before <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility, disabled workers earned an average of $42,156 a year (expressed in 2014 wage levels)—or slightly lower than the projected 2014 national average wage index (<abbr class="spell">AWI</abbr>) of $46,787.<sup><a href="#mn5" id="mt5">5</a></sup> Adjusted predisability annual earnings were $36,186 for median earners, just under $56,800 for workers at the 75<sup>th</sup> percentile, and just under $21,800 for those at the 25<sup>th</sup> percentile. Average annual earnings in the top 5 earnings years prior to the start of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits were 36 percent higher for male disabled workers than for female disabled workers.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table2">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 2. </span>Annualized earnings <sup>a</sup> in the 5 highest-earning years before eligibility for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> disabled-worker benefit: Selected percentiles and mean, overall and by sex (in 2014 dollars)</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:10em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="3" style="width:7em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Percentile</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Overall</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Men</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Women</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">25th</th>
|
|
<td>21,756</td>
|
|
<td>25,499</td>
|
|
<td>19,323</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0 nobr" scope="row">50th (median)</th>
|
|
<td>36,186</td>
|
|
<td>43,358</td>
|
|
<td>30,637</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">75th</th>
|
|
<td>56,752</td>
|
|
<td>66,531</td>
|
|
<td>45,945</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Mean</th>
|
|
<td>42,156</td>
|
|
<td>48,305</td>
|
|
<td>35,476</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="4">SOURCE: Authors' calculations based on <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s 2013 Disability Analysis File and 2013 Master Earnings File.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="4">NOTES: Values reflect all earned income, including earnings exceeding the Social Security taxable maximum.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="4">Years with zero earnings are included among the top 5 when applicable (only for beneficiaries entitled at age 31 or younger).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="4">a. Earnings are adjusted to the projected national <abbr class="spell">AWI</abbr> for 2014.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<h2>Predisability Industry Distribution of Current <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Beneficiaries</h2>
|
|
<p>Before becoming eligible for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits, workers were employed in a variety of industries (Table 3). Nearly half worked in service industries, and 18 percent worked in retail trade. For disabled-worker beneficiaries, Table 3 includes breakdowns by sex that highlight notable gender differences in many industries. Men are more likely to have worked in manufacturing and construction, while women are more likely to have worked in services. Within the services group, there is substantial variation in certain subcategories. Most notably, women are nearly four times as likely as men to have worked in health services, while men are more likely to have worked in business or automotive services.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table3">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 3. </span><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> disabled-worker beneficiaries in 2013: Percentage distribution by industry of last employment, with detail by sex and summary comparisons to total employment in 2002 and 2012</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:28em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="3" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:5em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th rowspan="2" class="stubHeading" scope="colgroup">Industry</th>
|
|
<th colspan="3" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Disabled workers (2013)</th>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="spanner" scope="colgroup">Total employment</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th scope="col">Men</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Women</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Total</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2002</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">2012</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</th>
|
|
<td>3.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>2.5</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Mining</th>
|
|
<td>1.1</td>
|
|
<td>0.1</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
<td>0.4</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Construction</th>
|
|
<td>7.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td>4.4</td>
|
|
<td>5.0</td>
|
|
<td>4.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Manufacturing</th>
|
|
<td>15.3</td>
|
|
<td>9.2</td>
|
|
<td>12.4</td>
|
|
<td>11.4</td>
|
|
<td>8.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Transportation, communications, electric, gas, and sanitation</th>
|
|
<td>6.9</td>
|
|
<td>3.3</td>
|
|
<td>5.1</td>
|
|
<td>3.6</td>
|
|
<td>3.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Wholesale trade</th>
|
|
<td>3.5</td>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td>2.7</td>
|
|
<td>4.2</td>
|
|
<td>4.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Retail trade</th>
|
|
<td>16.2</td>
|
|
<td>19.4</td>
|
|
<td>17.8</td>
|
|
<td>11.3</td>
|
|
<td>10.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0 nobr" scope="row">Finance, insurance, and real estate</th>
|
|
<td>6.2</td>
|
|
<td>8.1</td>
|
|
<td>7.1</td>
|
|
<td>5.9</td>
|
|
<td>5.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Services</th>
|
|
<td>38.6</td>
|
|
<td>55.6</td>
|
|
<td>46.8</td>
|
|
<td>40.3</td>
|
|
<td>44.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Hotels, rooming houses, camps, and other lodging places</th>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Personal services</th>
|
|
<td>0.7</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.1</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Business services</th>
|
|
<td>12.9</td>
|
|
<td>11.3</td>
|
|
<td>12.1</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Automotive and miscellaneous repair services and parking</th>
|
|
<td>3.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.3</td>
|
|
<td>2.3</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Amusement, recreation, parks, and museums</th>
|
|
<td>3.5</td>
|
|
<td>3.5</td>
|
|
<td>3.5</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Health services</th>
|
|
<td>4.2</td>
|
|
<td>16.3</td>
|
|
<td>10.1</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Legal services</th>
|
|
<td>0.2</td>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td>0.5</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Educational services</th>
|
|
<td>1.9</td>
|
|
<td>3.6</td>
|
|
<td>2.7</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Social services</th>
|
|
<td>2.7</td>
|
|
<td>5.8</td>
|
|
<td>4.2</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Membership organizations</th>
|
|
<td>1.2</td>
|
|
<td>1.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.4</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Engineering, accounting, research, management, and related services</th>
|
|
<td>3.8</td>
|
|
<td>4.3</td>
|
|
<td>4.1</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Miscellaneous services</th>
|
|
<td>3.0</td>
|
|
<td>3.4</td>
|
|
<td>3.2</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
<td>a</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Public administration</th>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
<td>16.1</td>
|
|
<td>16.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="6">SOURCES: Authors' calculations based on <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s 2013 Disability Analysis File, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s 2012 Continuous Work History Sample, and Bureau of Labor Statistics (2013).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="6">NOTES: “Industry of last employment” reflects the most recent job (within 10 years) prior to the date of current eligibility for disabled-worker benefits. If a beneficiary worked more than one job in the most recent year, the highest-paying of those jobs determines the industry.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="6">Calculations include adjustments to account for slight interagency differences in industry category definitions as well as to intra-agency revisions to those definitions over time.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="6">Rounded components of percentage distributions do not necessarily sum to 100.0.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="6">a. Inconsistencies in the service-industry subcategory definitions used by <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> and the Bureau of Labor Statistics (and between those used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2002 and in 2012) prevent useful cross-column comparisons.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<p>Table 3 also shows the industry distribution of all <abbr>U.S.</abbr> workers for comparison. Because the industry composition of American workers has changed over time (with jobs generally moving from manufacturing to services), and because the last pre-<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> jobs held by current disabled-worker beneficiaries span many years, the table shows the all-worker industry distributions for both 2002 and 2012.</p>
|
|
<p>Generally, the industry distribution of the former jobs of disabled workers is similar to that of all workers. The most notable exception is that <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries are far less likely than American workers overall to have worked in jobs classified as public administration (1 percent versus 16 percent). This is, in part, because about a quarter of state and local government employees and all federal workers hired before 1984 are not covered by Social Security. <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries are more likely than workers overall to have worked in retail trade (18 percent versus 11 percent) and in agriculture, forestry, and fishing (3 percent versus 2 percent). For some industries, the patterns are mixed, depending on which year of the all-worker distribution is used. The proportion of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries that last worked in manufacturing jobs (12 percent) is considerably higher than the proportion of manufacturing workers overall in 2012 (9 percent); but it is much closer to the manufacturing share of total employment in 2002 (11 percent), when more of today's beneficiaries presumably were still working. The reverse is true for services: The service-industry share of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries (47 percent) is slightly higher than the service-industry share of overall employment in 2012 (45 percent), but is much higher than its share in 2002 (40 percent). Overall, however, the industry distribution of predisability jobs for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries is fairly close to that for total employment.</p>
|
|
<h2><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Beneficiaries Have Significant Impairments and Many Are Older</h2>
|
|
<p>Social Security's test of disability is very strict. Benefits are paid only to those who have a medically determinable physical or mental impairment that precludes any substantial work activity and is expected to last at least a year or result in death in less than a year. A worker must be unable to perform not just his or her own prior job but any job that exists in significant numbers in the national economy (taking the worker's age, education, and work experience into account). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, which includes 34 member countries, describes the <abbr>U.S.</abbr> system (along with those of Canada, Japan, and South Korea) as having “the most stringent eligibility criteria for a full disability benefit, including the most rigid reference to all jobs available in the labour market” (<abbr class="spell">OECD</abbr> 2010, 89).</p>
|
|
<p>Nearly <span class="nobr">one-third</span> of disabled-worker beneficiaries have a musculoskeletal condition—such as severe arthritis, back injuries, or other disorders of the skeleton and connective tissues—as their primary diagnosis (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2014, Chart 6). Another <span class="nobr">one-third</span> have a mental disorder as their primary diagnosis. Calculations using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s Disability Analysis File (<abbr class="spell">DAF</abbr>) indicate that many beneficiaries (62 percent) have multiple disabling conditions. Some disabled-worker beneficiaries have life-threatening conditions such as <span class="nobr">stage-4</span> cancers, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, leukemia, or end-stage renal disease. One in five men and nearly one in six women who enter the program die within 5 years (Zayatz 2011, Table 13).</p>
|
|
<p>The risk of becoming disabled rises sharply with age. Because the program was originally intended for older workers who were nearing retirement but could not continue working because of disability, only workers aged <span class="nobr">50–64</span> were eligible when <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> was added to Social Security in 1956. Individuals who were still receiving disability benefits when they reached full retirement age (65 at the time) would automatically shift to receiving retirement benefits. This automatic transition to retirement benefits remains in effect, although the full retirement age has since increased.</p>
|
|
<p>The Social Security Act Amendments of 1960 broadened the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility criteria to include younger workers; nevertheless, older workers still dominate the beneficiary population. About <span class="nobr">two-thirds</span> of new disabled-worker awardees in 2013 were aged 50 or older; nearly one in five were aged 60 or older. Of all disabled workers receiving benefits in December 2013, 72 percent had reached age 50 and 32 percent had reached age 60 (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2014, Tables 39 and 19).</p>
|
|
<h2><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Benefits Are Modest, Yet They Help Families Stay Afloat Financially</h2>
|
|
<p>When <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> was established in 1956, Congress adopted the same formula to set benefit levels that it had established 20 years earlier for the Social Security retirement program, with the difference that disability benefits could be based on fewer years of work, as necessitated by the onset of disability. Having established retirement benefits “as a right rather than as public charity, and in amounts which will insure not merely subsistence but some of the comforts of life” (House Ways and Means Committee 1935), Congress extended this same purpose to disabled-worker benefits in 1956. As such, <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits were designed to be modest relative to average <abbr>U.S.</abbr> wages. Since 1956, the benefits for disabled workers have averaged 30 percent of the national <abbr class="spell">AWI</abbr>, and at the end of 2014, the average annualized benefit ($13,985) is 30 percent of the projected national <abbr class="spell">AWI</abbr> for 2014 ($46,787). More than <span class="nobr">one-third</span> (34 percent) of disabled-worker beneficiaries receive a benefit of less than $900 a month, 23 percent receive more than $1,500 a month, and the remaining 42 percent receive between $900 and $1,500 a month (Chart 2).</p>
|
|
<div class="chartCenter">
|
|
<div class="chart320" id="chart2">
|
|
<div class="title">Chart 2.<br>Percentage distribution of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> disabled-worker beneficiaries, by monthly benefit amount, December 2014</div>
|
|
<div class="scrollChart"><img src="ip2015-01-c2.gif" alt="Bar chart with tabular version below." width="296" height="241" /></div>
|
|
<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 2. </span>Percentage distribution of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> disabled-worker beneficiaries, by monthly benefit amount, December 2014</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:15em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:10em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Monthly benefit amount (dollars)</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Percent of beneficiaries</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0 nobr" scope="row">2,400 or more</th>
|
|
<td>1.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">2,100–2,399</span></th>
|
|
<td>4.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">1,800–2,099</span></th>
|
|
<td>7.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">1,500–1,799</span></th>
|
|
<td>10.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">1,200–1,499</span></th>
|
|
<td>16.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">900–1,199</span></th>
|
|
<td>25.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><span class="nobr">600–899</span></th>
|
|
<td>24.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0 nobr" scope="row">Less than 600</th>
|
|
<td>9.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="noNotes" colspan="2"> </td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
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<div class="firstNote">SOURCE: Authors' calculations based on <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s Master Beneficiary Record.</div>
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<div class="lastNote">NOTE: Rounded components of percentage distribution do not sum to 100.0.</div>
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</div>
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</div>
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<p><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits, although modest, are nonetheless the main source of income for most disabled-worker beneficiaries. About 80 percent of beneficiaries get at least half of their income from Social Security, including the 37 percent of beneficiaries who rely on <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits as their sole source of income (Bailey and Hemmeter forthcoming).</p>
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<p>The average disabled-worker benefit of $13,985 a year is slightly more than the federal poverty threshold ($12,316) for a working-age person living alone. The average benefit for families with a disabled worker and one or more dependent children who are also receiving benefits is $21,463 a year, slightly above the poverty threshold ($19,073) for a family of three (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> <span class="nobr">n.d. b).</span></p>
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<h2><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> Beneficiaries Reflect the Changing Composition of the American Workforce</h2>
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<p>In recent decades, as more women have joined the paid work force and earned disability protection through Social Security, they have accounted for an increasing share of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> participants. In December 2013, women accounted for nearly half (48 percent) of disabled-worker beneficiaries (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2014, Table 19).</p>
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<p>According to <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s 2010 National Beneficiary Survey (<abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr>), 75 percent of disabled workers identify as white or Caucasian, 18 percent identify as black or African American, and 7 percent identify as another racial group or multiple groups. By ethnicity, 11 percent of disabled workers identify as Hispanic.</p>
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<p>Nearly one million veterans of the armed forces receive Social Security disabled-worker benefits. Veterans account for one in nine of these beneficiaries (Bailey and Hemmeter forthcoming).</p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> beneficiaries have varied educational backgrounds. The lower bar in Chart 3 shows educational attainment for disabled-worker beneficiaries based on the 2013 Survey of Income and Program Participation (<abbr>SIPP</abbr>), the most recent data available (Bailey and Hemmeter, forthcoming). These data show that about half of disabled-worker beneficiaries have formal education beyond high school, including 18 percent who have at least a <span class="nobr">4-year</span> college degree. They also show that about 12 percent of disabled-worker beneficiaries did not obtain a high school diploma or the General Educational Development (<abbr class="spell">GED</abbr>) equivalent.</p>
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<div class="chartCenter">
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<div class="chart700" id="chart3">
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<div class="title">Chart 3.<br>Percentage distribution of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> disabled-worker beneficiaries, by educational attainment based on data from <abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr> (2010) and <abbr>SIPP</abbr> (2013)</div>
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<div class="scrollChart"><img src="ip2015-01-c3.gif" alt="Stacked bar chart with tabular version below." width="688" height="181" /></div>
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<div class="table altTable"><a class="altToggle" href="">Show as table</a>
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<table>
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table equivalent for Chart 3. </span>Percentage distribution of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> disabled-worker beneficiaries, by educational attainment based on data from <abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr> (2010) and <abbr>SIPP</abbr> (2013)</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:28em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="2" style="width:7em"></colgroup>
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<thead>
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<tr>
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<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Educational attainment</th>
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<th scope="col"><abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr> (2010)</th>
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<th scope="col"><abbr>SIPP</abbr> (2013)</th>
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0 nobr" scope="row">High school not completed (may include special education)</th>
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<td>28.0</td>
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<td>11.5</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">High school completion <sup>a</sup></th>
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<td>36.1</td>
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<td>38.9</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">Postsecondary education, no <span class="nobr">4-year</span> degree</th>
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<td>27.4</td>
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<td>31.7</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="row">Postsecondary education, <span class="nobr">4-year</span> degree or more</th>
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<td>8.5</td>
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<td>18.0</td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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<tfoot>
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<tr>
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<td class="noNotes" colspan="3"> </td>
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</tr>
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</tfoot>
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</table>
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</div>
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<div class="firstNote">SOURCES: Authors' calculations based on 2010 <abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr>; Bailey and Hemmeter (forthcoming).</div>
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<div class="note">NOTE: Rounded components of percentage distributions do not necessarily sum to 100.0.</div>
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<div class="lastNote">a. Diploma or General Educational Development (<abbr class="spell">GED</abbr>) equivalent.</div>
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</div>
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</div>
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<p>Another dataset, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s 2010 <abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr>, suggests somewhat different educational outcomes for disabled-worker beneficiaries (the upper bar in Chart 3). Although the <abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr> and <abbr>SIPP</abbr> data are similar for high school completion and postsecondary education without a <span class="nobr">4-year</span> degree, the <abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr> results indicate that only about 9 percent of disabled-worker beneficiaries had at least a <span class="nobr">4-year</span> college degree and that 28 percent had less than a high school education.</p>
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<p>Although further research needs to be done to understand the reasons for these differences, it is worth noting that changes in the <abbr>SIPP</abbr> data over time may reflect changes in the educational levels of the <abbr>U.S.</abbr> population as a whole. In general, education levels have been increasing over time, and high school dropout rates have been falling (Chapman and others 2011; Census Bureau 2015, Table <span class="nobr">A-1).</span> Consistent with those changes, <abbr>SIPP</abbr> data indicate a decrease in the proportion of disabled-worker beneficiaries with less than a high school education, from 23 percent in 2002 to 16 percent in 2010 and 12 percent in 2013 (Bailey and Hemmeter 2014; DeCesaro and Hemmeter 2008). Still, the magnitude of these changes over a relatively short time is surprising, and they differ from the 2010 <abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr> findings, which are closer to the 2002 <abbr>SIPP</abbr> results. New <abbr class="spell">NBS</abbr> data for 2015 will be available in 2016 and should shed additional light on changes over time in the educational attainment of disabled-worker beneficiaries.</p>
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<h2>Conclusion</h2>
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<p>The Social Security <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program was designed to provide modest federal benefits to workers with established work histories who had paid into the program and subsequently became totally disabled and unable to support themselves through work. Current data on the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> disabled-worker beneficiary population indicate that the program hews closely to this intent. Beneficiaries generally had long work histories before becoming eligible for <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>. Most beneficiaries not only met the minimum insured-status requirements, but handily exceeded them, often earning the maximum possible work credits in all (or nearly all) years between age 21 and <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> eligibility. Their patterns of predisability employment by industry were much like those of nondisabled workers, and prior to starting <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> benefits, they had achieved adjusted earnings in their top 5 earnings years that, on average, were comparable to the 2014 earnings of nondisabled workers.</p>
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<p>As the <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program's designers intended, most disabled-worker beneficiaries are older; the majority of them are aged 50 or older when they start receiving benefits. The program's strict eligibility standards are reflected in the high mortality rate among beneficiaries within 5 years of starting benefits. Its goal of providing only the most basic of benefits is reflected in the fact that the average benefit level remains less than <span class="nobr">one-third</span> of the national <abbr class="spell">AWI</abbr> and only slightly above the federal poverty line.</p>
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<p>Although the Social Security <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program has grown and adjusted to meet the demographic changes in the United States since 1956, it also succeeds in dutifully following the core tenets that Congress established for it nearly 60 years ago.</p>
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<div id="notes">
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<h2>Notes</h2>
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<p> <a href="#mt1" id="mn1">1</a> For a legislative history of <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> program developments <span class="nobr">1935–1974,</span> see House Ways and Means Committee (1974).</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt2" id="mn2">2</a> See, for example, the many evaluations of return-to-work services provided under the Ticket to Work program at <a href="/disabilityresearch/twe_reports.htm">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/disabilityresearch/twe_reports.htm</a>.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt3" id="mn3">3</a> A spouse's eligibility is typically tied to care of children, although other circumstances may allow a spouse to qualify.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt4" id="mn4">4</a> Since 1978, work credits (still known as “quarters of coverage”) have been based on annual earnings, without regard to when the work occurred during the year. Workers can earn a maximum of four quarters of coverage each calendar year. For example, in 2014, workers who earned at least $1,200, $2,400, $3,600, or $4,800 respectively earned one, two, three, or four work credits for the year.</p>
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<p> <a href="#mt5" id="mn5">5</a> We use the 2014 <abbr class="spell">AWI</abbr>—as reported in Board of Trustees (2014)—to adjust the earnings data for each beneficiary. Some analysts assert that wage indexing artificially inflates past earnings. If so, the effect is greater for earnings from earlier periods. We analyzed annual earnings for the 5 years with the highest earnings during the pre-<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> working lifetime of each disabled-worker beneficiary in our dataset; the average calendar year for those data points was 1992. Because 1992 is relatively recent, we do not consider potential distortion to be a significant concern.</p>
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</div>
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<div id="references">
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<h2>References</h2>
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<p>Bailey, Michelle Stegman, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. 2014. “Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Program Participants, 2010 Update.” Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2014-02.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy. <a href="/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2014-02.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2014-02.html</a>.</p>
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<p>———. Forthcoming. “Social Security Administrative Records Matched to 2008 <abbr>SIPP</abbr> Wave 15 (2013) Data.”</p>
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<p>[Board of Trustees] Board of Trustees of the Federal <span class="nobr">Old-Age</span> and Survivors Insurance and Federal Disability Insurance Trust Funds. 2014. <i>2014 Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Federal <span class="nobr">Old-Age</span> and Survivors Insurance and Federal Disability Insurance Trust Funds.</i> <a href="/oact/tr/2014/tr2014.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/oact/tr/2014/tr2014.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2013. “Employment Projections: Employment by Industry Sector.” <a href="https://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/ecopro_12192013.htm">http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_table_201.htm</a>.</p>
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<p>Census Bureau. 2015. “Educational Attainment: <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> Historical Time Series Tables.” <a href="https://www.census.gov/topics/education/educational-attainment.html">http://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/education/data/cps/historical/</a>.</p>
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<p>Chapman, Chris, Jennifer Laird, Nicole Ifill, and Angelina KewalRamani. 2011. <i>Trends in High School Dropout and Completion Rates in the United States: <span class="nobr">1972–2009.</span> Compendium Report.</i> <abbr class="spell">NCES</abbr> <span class="nobr">2012-006.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012006.pdf.</p>
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<p>DeCesaro, Anne, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. 2008. “Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Program Participants.” Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2008-02.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>, Office of Policy. <a href="/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2008-02.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2008-02.html</a>.</p>
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<p>House Ways and Means Committee. <i>See</i> <abbr>U.S.</abbr> Congress, House Committee on Ways and Means. </p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">OECD</abbr>] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2010. <i>Sickness, Disability, and Work: Breaking the Barriers. A Synthesis of Findings Across <abbr class="spell">OECD</abbr> Countries.</i> Paris: <abbr class="spell">OECD</abbr> Publishing. http://ec.europa.eu/health/mental_health/eu_compass/reports_studies/disability_synthesis_2010_en.pdf.</p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>] Social Security Administration. 2014. <i>Annual Statistical Report on the Social Security Disability Insurance Program, 2013</i>. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Publication <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">13-11826.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/statcomps/di_asr/2013/index.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/di_asr/2013/index.html</a>.</p>
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<p>———. <span class="nobr">n.d. a.</span> “Benefits Paid by Type of Beneficiary.” <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>, Office of the Chief Actuary. <a href="/OACT/ProgData/icp.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/<abbr title="O ACT">OACT</abbr>/ProgData/icp.html</a>.</p>
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<p>———. <span class="nobr">n.d. b.</span> “Benefits Paid by Type of Family.” <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>, Office of the Chief Actuary. <a href="/OACT/ProgData/famben.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/<abbr title="O ACT">OACT</abbr>/ProgData/famben.html</a>.</p>
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<p><abbr>U.S.</abbr> Congress, House Committee on Ways and Means. 1935. <i>The Social Security Bill.</i> Committee Report <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 615. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Government Printing Office. <a href="/history/reports/35housereport.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/history/reports/35housereport.html</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 1974. <i>Committee Staff Report on the Disability Insurance Program.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Government Printing Office. <a href="/history/pdf/dibreport.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/history/pdf/dibreport.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Zayatz, Tim. 2011. “Social Security Disability Insurance Program Worker Experience.” Actuarial Study <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 122. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>, Office of the Chief Actuary. <a href="/OACT/NOTES/pdf_studies/study122.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/<abbr title="O ACT">OACT</abbr>/NOTES/pdf_studies/study122.pdf</a>.</p>
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