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<h1 itemprop="headline">An Overview of American Indians and Alaska Natives in the Context of Social Security and Supplemental Security Income</h1>
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<div id="hByline">by <span itemprop="author">Nolan Smith-Kaprosy, Patricia P. Martin, and Kevin Whitman</span><br>Social Security Bulletin, <abbr title="Volume">Vol.</abbr> 72, <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 4, 2012 (released November 2012)</div>
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<p id="synopsis" itemprop="description">This article examines the economic security of the American Indian and Alaska Native (<abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>) population by exploring <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> receipt of Social Security benefits and Supplemental Security Income (<abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>). This analysis uses data from the <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> American Community Survey Public Use Microdata Sample, which provides a larger <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> sample size than many other sources, thereby enabling more reliable estimates. We find that adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s are less likely to receive Social Security benefits and more likely to receive <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> than are adults in the total population. In both programs, median benefit amounts are lower for <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> recipients than for recipients in the total population. </p>
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<hr />
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<div class="eightypercent">
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<p>When this article was written, Nolan Smith-Kaprosy was an intern with the Social Security Administration (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>) in the Washington Internships for Native Students (<abbr>WINS</abbr>) program. Patricia Martin and Kevin Whitman are with the Office of Retirement Policy, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>.</p>
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<p>Contents of this publication are <a href="/policy/accessibility.html">not copyrighted</a>; any items may be reprinted, but citation of the <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> as the source is requested. The findings and conclusions presented in the <i>Bulletin</i> are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Social Security Administration.</p>
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</div>
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</div>
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<h2>Introduction</h2>
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<div class="abbrtable">
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<table role="presentation">
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<caption>Selected Abbreviations</caption>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr></td>
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<td>American Community Survey</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr></td>
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<td>American Indian and Alaska Native</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr></td>
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<td>Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr>PUMS</abbr></td>
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<td>Public Use Microdata Sample</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr></td>
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<td>Social Security Administration</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></td>
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<td>Supplemental Security Income</td>
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</tr>
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</table>
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</div>
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<p>Members of the American Indian and Alaska Native (<abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>) population face substantial economic disadvantages, making them a critical target for social insurance programs. Understanding how they use <span class="nobr">Old-Age,</span> Survivors, and Disability Insurance (<abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr>) and Supplemental Security Income (<abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>) benefits illuminates the role these programs play in supporting vulnerable populations.<sup><a href="#mn1" id="mt1">1</a></sup> This article provides an overview of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population's characteristics and use of these programs.</p>
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<p>Social policy literature often fails to address the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population. One of the foremost reasons for this research deficit is the group's small sample size in many surveys, which creates a variety of analytical challenges.<sup><a href="#mn2" id="mt2">2</a></sup> To address this concern, we use the combined <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> estimates from the American Community Survey (<abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>) Public Use Microdata Sample (<abbr>PUMS</abbr>) to analyze the characteristics of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population and investigate patterns of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefit receipt. The <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> generally oversamples <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s, making the estimates more reliable and reflective of the true population values for this group (Census Bureau 2006). The <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> file we use includes more than 150,000 person records for individuals aged 18 or older who self-identify as American Indian or Alaska Native.</p>
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<p>This article proceeds in four parts. First, we describe our data and the methodology for outlining the adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population in the context of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>.<sup><a href="#mn3" id="mt3">3</a></sup> Second, we summarize the socioeconomic characteristics of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s, and focus on those that may influence benefit eligibility and receipt. Third, we present statistics on the percentage of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s receiving <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and the average benefit amounts, all compared with the total <abbr class="spell">US</abbr> population. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of the practical implications of the findings and the need for future research.</p>
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<p>Our analysis of the <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> indicates that, on average, the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population is younger, less likely to be married, less well educated, less wealthy, in poorer health, and more geographically isolated than the general population. A smaller share of adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s receives <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefits and a higher share receives <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefits. Among recipients, median benefit amounts under both programs are lower for the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population than for the total population.</p>
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<h2>Data and Methods</h2>
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<p>This article uses data from the <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> to provide insight into the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population. The Census Bureau, which developed the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> to replace the long form of the decennial census, randomly selects around 3.5 million addresses annually to participate in the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> (Census Bureau 2011d). The <abbr>PUMS</abbr> enables the researcher to segment data by various demographic characteristics and to analyze multiple socioeconomic characteristics.</p>
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<p>This overview uses the <span class="nobr">5-year</span> estimates rather than the single-year or <span class="nobr">3-year</span> estimates the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> also provides. We employ the <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> because of the relatively small sample size of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s and the context of our analysis, which focuses more on precision than currency. The Census Bureau's guide for <abbr>PUMS</abbr> data users affirms that these rationales make the <span class="nobr">5-year</span> estimates more appropriate (Census Bureau 2011c). We tabulate a total of 11,376,591 records for persons aged 18 or older from the <span class="nobr">5-year</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> used in this analysis. The file includes the responses for the 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009 surveys; no household address appears in multiple samples over that period (Census Bureau 2010). Data on disability status are available only from the 2009 <abbr>PUMS</abbr>.</p>
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<p>In our analysis, <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> refers to <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> respondents who identified their race as "American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in combination with one or more other races" (Census Bureau 2011a).<sup><a href="#mn4" id="mt4">4</a></sup> The inclusion of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s in combination with other races is important because multiracial backgrounds are common among this population. In the 2009 <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>, <span class="nobr">one-half</span> of the respondents who specified their race as <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> reported more than one racial identity. The focus of previous <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> research has varied between multiracial and <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>-alone groups, with the determination generally based on the study's particular aims.</p>
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<p>Another important distinction for analyzing the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population is whether the individuals live in reservation communities.<sup><a href="#mn5" id="mt5">5</a></sup> We do not distinguish the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population by place of residence. We use as broad an <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> definition as possible because this article is intended as a general overview of the population.<sup><a href="#mn6" id="mt6">6</a></sup></p>
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<p>All tables show descriptive statistics of the population, or subsets therein. Any discussion in the text referring to the overall population or the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population refers specifically to adults (aged 18 or older) unless otherwise noted. We restrict our overview to the adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population because any analysis that focuses on Social Security will be difficult to interpret if minor child beneficiaries are present as well as adult beneficiaries. Social Security child benefits generally stop at age 18.<sup><a href="#mn7" id="mt7">7</a></sup> <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefit receipt is indicated if the respondent reports a positive amount for any income from Social Security in the past 12 months (the <span class="nobr">5-year</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> data set does not allow us to differentiate retirement, survivor, and disability benefits).<sup><a href="#mn8" id="mt8">8</a></sup> <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt is likewise indicated by such a response. All benefit statistics are self-reported.</p>
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<p>All wage, Social Security income, and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> values are in 2009 dollars, adjusted using the <abbr class="spell">ADJINC</abbr> variable in the <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr>. The <abbr>PUMS</abbr> data have been weighted and statistically tested using design factors. Unless otherwise indicated, all demographic and economic comparisons between the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population and the overall population, including Social Security beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients, are statistically significant at the 90 percent confidence level or better.</p>
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<h2>Characteristics of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> Population</h2>
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<p>Table 1 provides an overview of various demographic, social, economic, and other characteristics of the adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population and compares them with those of the overall population. The analysis includes data from the <abbr>PUMS</abbr> along with supporting information from relevant prior literature to provide a broader context for some of the patterns seen in the <abbr>PUMS</abbr> data. However, a full causal exploration of any of these characteristics falls outside this article's scope.</p>
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<div class="table" id="table1">
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<table>
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<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 1. </span>Selected characteristics of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and total populations aged 18 or older, <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span></caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:22em"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="2" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
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<thead>
|
|
<tr>
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|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Characteristic</th>
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<th scope="col"><abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population</th>
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<th scope="col">Total population (including <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>)</th>
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</tr>
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</thead>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Age</th>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1" scope="row">Median age</th>
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<td>42</td>
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<td>45</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1" scope="row">Percentage aged 62 or older</th>
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<td>14.0</td>
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<td>20.3</td>
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</tr>
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<tr class="topPad1">
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<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Marital status (%)</th>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1" scope="row">Married</th>
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<td>42.2</td>
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<td>53.1</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1" scope="row">Widowed</th>
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<td>5.7</td>
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<td>6.6</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1" scope="row">Divorced</th>
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<td>15.1</td>
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<td>11.0</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1" scope="row">Separated</th>
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<td>3.5</td>
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<td>2.3</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Never married</th>
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|
<td>33.4</td>
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<td>26.9</td>
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</tr>
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|
<tr class="topPad1">
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|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Educational attainment (%)</th>
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<td colspan="2"></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1" scope="row">Less than high school</th>
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<td>21.1</td>
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<td>15.6</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<th class="stub1" scope="row">High school graduate</th>
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<td>31.1</td>
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|
<td>29.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Some college or associate's degree</th>
|
|
<td>33.8</td>
|
|
<td>29.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Bachelor's degree</th>
|
|
<td>9.2</td>
|
|
<td>16.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Master's degree</th>
|
|
<td>3.4</td>
|
|
<td>6.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Professional school degree</th>
|
|
<td>0.8</td>
|
|
<td>1.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Doctorate </th>
|
|
<td>0.6</td>
|
|
<td>1.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Median wage income ($)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="2"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Overall</th>
|
|
<td>7,996</td>
|
|
<td>13,189</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Among those having positive wage income </th>
|
|
<td>22,475</td>
|
|
<td>30,234</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Income relative to poverty level <sup>a </sup>(%)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="2"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Less than 50 percent of threshold</th>
|
|
<td>8.6</td>
|
|
<td>5.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Less than 100 percent of threshold</th>
|
|
<td>20.1</td>
|
|
<td>11.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Less than 150 percent of threshold</th>
|
|
<td>32.2</td>
|
|
<td>20.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Disability status (%)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="2"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">With disability</th>
|
|
<td>23.8</td>
|
|
<td>15.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Without disability</th>
|
|
<td>76.2</td>
|
|
<td>84.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="rowgroup">Region (%)</th>
|
|
<td colspan="2"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Northeast</th>
|
|
<td>8.5</td>
|
|
<td>18.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">Midwest</th>
|
|
<td>17.6</td>
|
|
<td>22.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">South</th>
|
|
<td>33.1</td>
|
|
<td>36.5</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" scope="row">West</th>
|
|
<td>40.9</td>
|
|
<td>22.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="3">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr>. The disabled category uses the 2009 <abbr>PUMS</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="note" colspan="3">NOTE: Rounded components of percentage distributions do not necessarily sum to 100.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="3">a. Poverty statistics omit institutionalized individuals and those living in group quarters such as military bases and college dormitories.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<h3>Age</h3>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s are younger than the total population on average. The median age for <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s is 42 years, compared with 45 overall. Sixty-two is the earliest age at which an individual can receive Social Security retirement benefits; 14.0 percent of the adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population is aged 62 or older, while the comparable figure for the total population is 20.3 percent.</p>
|
|
<p>A variety of factors contribute to the differences in the age distribution between the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and the total populations, but one that is especially relevant in the context of Social Security is the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population's higher incidence of health risk factors that shorten life, such as alcoholism, diabetes, and homicide (<abbr class="spell">IHS</abbr> 2011). As of 2008, the age-adjusted years of potential life lost before age 75 for the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population was 8,151.6 per 100,000 persons, compared with 6,952.8 for the total population (<abbr class="spell">CDC</abbr> 2011).<sup><a href="#mn9" id="mt9">9</a></sup></p>
|
|
<h3>Marital Status</h3>
|
|
<p>The share of people who are married is smaller among <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s than in the general population, 42.2 percent versus 53.1 percent. Similarly, the shares of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population who are divorced or never married are higher than those of the total population. Particularly notable are the never-married shares: 33.4 percent for the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population versus 26.9 percent overall.</p>
|
|
<p>Earlier studies highlight a number of elements correlated with "ever marrying" that may explain the marital patterns we see in the <abbr>PUMS</abbr> data. One of the foremost factors is age, as the adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population is younger on average. However, other factors that may be relevant to the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> group are health and economic status. The direction of correlation between marriage and each of those two factors likely runs both ways, as healthier and wealthier individuals have higher probabilities of ever marrying, and those who are married tend to be in better health and have more wealth (Tamborini 2007). The correlation suggesting a selection bias in marriage may be a factor in the higher never-married share of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population, as <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s experience lower physical and economic well-being than the total population.<sup><a href="#mn10" id="mt10">10</a></sup></p>
|
|
<h3>Educational Attainment</h3>
|
|
<p>The <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population in the <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> is also less educated than the total population. Around 21 percent of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s do not have a high school diploma, while 15.6 percent of the total population falls into this category. Moreover, roughly 14 percent of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s received a bachelor's degree or higher, compared with around 25 percent of the total population.</p>
|
|
<p>DeVoe and Darling-Churchill (2008) identify the primary risk factors associated with poor educational outcomes as "living in a single-parent family, living in poverty, having a mother who has less than a high school education, and having parents whose primary language is a language other than English."<sup><a href="#mn11" id="mt11">11</a></sup> The first three of these factors are more prevalent among the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population than the total population and may help explain some of the educational disparities seen in the <abbr>PUMS</abbr> data.</p>
|
|
<h3>Economic Status</h3>
|
|
<p>Some of the largest differences between the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> group and the total population appear in their relative economic status. To analyze economic well-being, we present <abbr>PUMS</abbr> data on wage income and poverty.<sup><a href="#mn12" id="mt12">12</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>Median wage income for adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s is much lower than for the total population. Restricted to those with positive wage income in the preceding year, the 50<sup>th</sup> percentile earnings for <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s is $22,475, compared with $30,234 for the general population.</p>
|
|
<p>Poverty in <abbr>PUMS</abbr> is consistent with the wage disparity, as 20.1 percent of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s fall below the poverty level, compared with 11.8 percent for the total population (note this is not the official poverty rate).<sup><a href="#mn13" id="mt13">13</a></sup> Poverty is heavily concentrated in some <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> communities; Miller (2008) notes that each year, "at least four of the ten poorest counties in the <abbr>U.S.</abbr> are located on Indian reservations."</p>
|
|
<p>Looking specifically at single-ancestry <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> men, Hurst (1997) finds that nearly all of the earnings differential between this group and the <span class="nobr">non-<abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr></span> population can be explained by their human capital characteristics and geography. Lower human capital among the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population is directly reflective of the type of educational differences cited earlier along with the well-established positive relationship between education and earnings. However, even with greater levels of human capital, the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population would still face economic barriers based on their location. <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s are more likely to live in isolated rural locations with fewer employment opportunities, particularly in more advanced economic sectors. Poverty tends to be highest in rural counties for all racial and ethnic groups (Jolliffe 2004). Geography is addressed in detail later in this article.</p>
|
|
<h3>Disability</h3>
|
|
<p>In addition to the economic disparities highlighted above, <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s also have poorer health than the overall population. As the <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> does not include disability data in person records, we use the single-year 2009 estimates for disability. The <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> defines a "disability" as "a long-lasting physical, mental, or emotional condition" that "can make it difficult for a person to do activities such as walking…or to work at a job or business." By this definition, almost <span class="nobr">one-fourth</span> (23.8 percent) of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s are disabled. The comparable figure for the total population is 15.3 percent. Because the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> definition of disability is not the same as Social Security's definition, those values do not represent Social Security disability benefit eligibility or receipt rates.<sup><a href="#mn14" id="mt14">14</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>Other research has highlighted the prevalence of particular maladies and risk factors among the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population. Barnes, Adams, and Powell-Griner (2010) find higher diabetes and heart disease rates for the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population than for all other racial and ethnic groups studied, which may in part stem from this group also having higher rates of smoking and obesity. However, beyond behaviors that pose health risks, <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s also face structural impediments to well-being, particularly if they live on reservations. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Office of Minority Health and Health Disparities lists "cultural barriers, geographic isolation, inadequate sewage disposal, and low income" as some of the issues that prevent this population from receiving what they term as "quality medical care" (<abbr class="spell">CDC</abbr> 2012).</p>
|
|
<h3>Geography</h3>
|
|
<p>Compared with the overall <abbr class="spell">US</abbr> population, the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population is more heavily concentrated in the western region. About 41 percent of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population lives in the West, which the Census Bureau defines as comprising Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. Comparatively, 22.8 percent of the overall population lives in the West.</p>
|
|
<p>The reasons for these geographic characteristics are primarily historical. <abbr class="spell">US</abbr> policy created the reservation system that forced many American Indians onto rural, isolated Western lands (Sandefur 1986). For Alaska Natives, higher residency rates in Alaska are unsurprising; but even there, <abbr class="spell">US</abbr> policies have substantially influenced settlement patterns.</p>
|
|
<h2><abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Benefit Receipt Among the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> Population</h2>
|
|
<p>Many of the characteristics described above can influence the way the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population uses <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>. Some of these interactions are obvious. For example, greater prevalence of disabilities that meet Social Security eligibility requirements will generally result in higher receipt of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> disability benefits. Other interactions are not as apparent, but are still significant. For instance, lower earnings among <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s not only produce an immediate economic effect, they also lower future benefits based on those earnings. Beyond earnings, sociodemographic characteristics can also play a role. The <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population's lower rates of marriage decrease eligibility for Social Security spousal and survivor benefits, which could offer access to higher benefits than a recipient's own earnings record provides.</p>
|
|
<p>Even geography may play a role in benefit receipt, through its practical effect on physical access to government services. Researchers have long identified geography as a potential barrier to government services for <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s: "Because many of these citizens live in remote areas under cultural conditions that are far removed from the contemporary American scene, they often require assistance and service that is beyond the scope of most of the Social Security Administration district offices" (Hamilton 1969). The limited existence and maintenance of adequate infrastructure on (and leading to) Indian reservations often serves as an additional barrier for remote reservation communities.<sup><a href="#mn15" id="mt15">15</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>The rest of the article describes the patterns of benefit receipt that may stem, at least in part, from these types of characteristics. In Table 2, we examine Social Security benefit receipt among the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and total populations and the economic characteristics of those who report receiving <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefits. Table 3 presents the same data for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments. Both tables also include results for individuals aged 65 or older to highlight the characteristics of aged beneficiaries.</p>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table2">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 2. </span>Social Security benefit receipt among the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and total populations aged 18 or older, <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span></caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:21em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th id="c2"><abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population</th>
|
|
<th id="c3">Total population (including <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="panel" id="r1">Percentage who receive benefits </th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r2" headers="r1 c1">Overall </th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 c2">15.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 c3">18.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r3" headers="r1 c1">Aged 65 or older</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 c2">86.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 c3">88.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r4" headers="r1 c1">Disabled </th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 c2">37.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 c3">52.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r5" headers="r1 c1">Married</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r5 c2">15.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r5 c3">18.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r6" headers="r1 c1">Widowed</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r6 c2">65.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r6 c3">75.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r7" headers="r1 c1">Divorced</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2">19.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3">19.8</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r8" headers="r1 c1">Separated</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r8 c2">12.5</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r8 c3">12.3</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r9" headers="r1 c1">Never married</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 c2">5.3</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 c3">5.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="panel" id="r10">Average annual benefit amounts (in dollars)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r11" headers="r10 c1">Among all adult beneficiaries</th>
|
|
<td colspan="2"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r10 r11 c1">75th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r12 c2">13,148</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r12 c3">14,726</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r13" headers="r10 r11 c1">50th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r13 c2">9,467</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r13 c3">10,834</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r14" headers="r10 r11 c1">25th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r14 c2">6,392</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r14 c3">7,167</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r15" headers="r10 r11 r14 c1">Percentage of beneficiaries in poverty <sup>a</sup></th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r14 r15 c2">19.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r14 r15 c3">10.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r16" headers="r10 c1">Among beneficiaries aged 65 or older</th>
|
|
<td colspan="2"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r17" headers="r10 r16 c1">75th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r17 c2">13,464</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r17 c3">14,992</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r18" headers="r10 r16 c1">50th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r18 c2">10,078</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r18 c3">11,360</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r19" headers="r10 r16 c1">25th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r19 c2">6,831</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r19 c3">7,503</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r20" headers="r10 r16 r19 c1">Percentage of beneficiaries in poverty <sup>a</sup></th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r19 r20 c2">15.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r19 r20 c3">8.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="3">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr>. The disabled category uses the 2009 <abbr>PUMS</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="3">a. Poverty statistics omit institutionalized individuals and those living in group quarters such as military bases and college dormitories.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="table" id="table3">
|
|
<table>
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 3. </span><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt among the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and total populations aged 18 or older, <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span></caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:21em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="2" style="width:8em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" id="c1">Characteristic</th>
|
|
<th id="c2"><abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population</th>
|
|
<th id="c3">Total population (including <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="panel" id="r1">Percentage who receive payments </th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r2" headers="r1 c1">Overall </th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 c2">4.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r2 c3">2.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r3" headers="r1 c1">Aged 65 or older</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 c2">8.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r3 c3">4.2</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r4" headers="r1 c1">Disabled </th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 c2">18.8</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r4 c3">13.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r5" headers="r1 c1">Married</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r5 c2">2.4</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r5 c3">1.1</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r6" headers="r1 c1">Widowed</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r6 c2">10.9</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r6 c3">5.6</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r7" headers="r1 c1">Divorced</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c2">8.2</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r7 c3">4.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r8" headers="r1 c1">Separated</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r8 c2">8.1</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r8 c3">5.7</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r9" headers="r1 c1">Never married</th>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 c2">4.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r1 r9 c3">3.0</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td> </td>
|
|
<th colspan="2" class="panel" id="r10">Average annual payment amounts (in dollars)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r11" headers="r10 c1">Among all adult recipients</th>
|
|
<td colspan="2"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r12" headers="r10 r11 c1">75th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r12 c2">8,096</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r12 c3">8,596</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r13" headers="r10 r11 c1">50th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r13 c2">6,996</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r13 c3">7,196</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r14" headers="r10 r11 c1">25th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r14 c2">4,102</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r14 c3">4,261</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r15" headers="r10 r11 r14 c1">Percentage of recipients in poverty <sup>a</sup></th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r14 r15 c2">47.7</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r11 r14 r15 c3">39.9</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" id="r16" headers="r10 c1">Among recipients aged 65 or older</th>
|
|
<td colspan="2"></td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r17" headers="r10 r16 c1">75th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r17 c2">7,573</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r17 c3">8,536</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r18" headers="r10 r16 c1">50th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r18 c2">4,970</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r18 c3">5,835</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub1" id="r19" headers="r10 r16 c1">25th percentile</th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r19 c2">2,898</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r19 c3">3,583</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="shaded">
|
|
<th class="stub2" id="r20" headers="r10 r16 r19 c1">Percentage of recipients in poverty <sup>a</sup></th>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r19 r20 c2">40.6</td>
|
|
<td headers="r10 r16 r19 r20 c3">30.4</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="3">SOURCE: Authors' calculations using <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr>. The disabled category uses the 2009 <abbr>PUMS</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="3">a. Poverty statistics omit institutionalized individuals and those living in group quarters such as military bases and college dormitories.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<h3><abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr></h3>
|
|
<p>A smaller share of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s reported receiving Social Security income in the previous 12 months than did so from the total population, 15.4 percent compared with 18.9 percent (Table 2). A similar, but slightly smaller, disparity exists among those aged 65 or older, as 86.6 percent of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s report receiving Social Security benefits, compared with 88.4 percent of the total population. One likely explanation for this pattern is that fewer <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s qualify for Social Security benefits because their work records are insufficient to insure them under the program.<sup><a href="#mn16" id="mt16">16</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>Among those who report being disabled, the share of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> group that receives Social Security benefits is far lower than that for the total population. Among disabled adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s, 37.9 percent are Social Security beneficiaries, compared with 52.1 percent of the total population.<sup><a href="#mn17" id="mt17">17</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>Turning to marital status, which plays a role in eligibility for some Social Security benefits, the most noticeable difference between the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and overall populations is among the widowed. Around 66 percent of widowed <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s report receiving Social Security benefits, compared with 75.9 percent of the total population.<sup><a href="#mn18" id="mt18">18</a></sup> This result likely reflects the higher share of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> widow population that is younger than age 60, which is the earliest age at which a nondisabled widow or widower can receive survivor benefits. Slightly over 26 percent of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> widows are younger than age 60. By comparison, around 15 percent of widows in the total adult population are younger than age 60 (not shown in table). Among widows aged 62 or older, the rates of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> receipt are nearly identical for the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and total populations (also not shown).</p>
|
|
<p>Average benefit amounts among Social Security beneficiaries are lower for the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population than for the total population. The 50<sup>th</sup> percentile (median) value among those reporting Social Security benefit income in the preceding 12 months is $9,467 for <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> adults, compared with $10,834 overall. A similar pattern is seen at both the 25<sup>th</sup> and 75<sup>th</sup> percentiles.</p>
|
|
<p>Poverty among adult Social Security beneficiaries is also more prevalent in the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population than in the total population. About 20 percent of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> Social Security beneficiaries have income below the poverty threshold, while for all beneficiaries the figure is 10.6 percent. This divergence likely reflects the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population's greater tendency to lack other resources. It may also reflect the continued effects of lower lifetime earnings, which reduce Social Security benefits despite a progressive benefit formula that replaces a higher share of income for low lifetime earners.<sup><a href="#mn19" id="mt19">19</a></sup></p>
|
|
<p>Similar patterns emerge among aged <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries aged 65 or older. The 25th, 50th, and 75th percentile <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefit amounts are lower for <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s than for the total population. In addition, poverty rates are higher among <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> beneficiaries than the total population of beneficiaries in that age range. The magnitudes of the differences are consistent with those seen for all adult beneficiaries. </p>
|
|
<h3><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></h3>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt among <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s is substantially higher than in the total population (Table 3). Five percent of adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s received <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments, around double the rate for the total adult population.</p>
|
|
<p>Looking at the age group in which one is eligible to receive <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments based on age (65 or older), 8.6 percent of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> group received <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>, compared with 4.2 percent of the total population. The resource limits for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> aged recipients are strict ($2,000 for an individual in 2011) (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2012d). The <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population's higher rate of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt is consistent with their relative economic vulnerability.</p>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt among those who are disabled is higher for the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population than for the total population. Among adults categorized as disabled in the 2009 <abbr>PUMS</abbr>, almost <span class="nobr">one-fifth</span> (18.8 percent) of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> group are <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients compared with about one in seven (13.9 percent) overall.</p>
|
|
<p>Regardless of marital status, the difference in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt rates is consistent between the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and total populations. For all marital status groups, the share of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population reporting <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> receipt roughly doubles that of the overall population.</p>
|
|
<p>Among recipients, the median annual income from <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> is $6,996 for the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population, slightly below the $7,196 median for the total <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> population. Similarly small differences exist at the 75<sup>th</sup> percentile and 25<sup>th</sup> percentiles. The variation in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments is smaller than that for Social Security benefits, consistent with the fact that only the latter are earnings-based. The small difference in <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments between the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and total populations may be explained in part by a variety of factors that can affect <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment amounts, including other resources, marital status, and varying state supplements.<sup><a href="#mn20" id="mt20">20</a></sup> However, a complete analysis of those factors is outside the scope of this article.</p>
|
|
<p>Almost 48 percent of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipient population has income below the poverty threshold, compared with 39.9 percent of the total <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipient population. High poverty rates for both groups are consistent with a program targeted towards those with "little or no income" (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2012c).</p>
|
|
<p>Similar results appear for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients aged 65 and older. <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s receive lower payment amounts at the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles and are more likely to be in poverty than the total population of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients. Notably, the discrepancies are larger among the aged than among adult <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients overall.</p>
|
|
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
|
|
<p>The <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> allows in-depth research into the socioeconomic characteristics of the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population and shows how these characteristics relate to their receipt of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefits. Addressing these topics is critical to improving our understanding of a traditionally understudied population, particularly in the context of social insurance programs designed to help mitigate economic vulnerability.</p>
|
|
<p>The <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population is younger, more likely to be unmarried, less educated, less wealthy, in poorer health, and more likely to live in a geographically isolated location than the <abbr class="spell">US</abbr> population as a whole. All of these characteristics can in some way influence <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefit receipt. Our findings indicate that the adult <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population is less likely to receive <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefits than the total population and more likely to receive <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>. Median Social Security and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefit amounts among <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s who receive income from the programs are lower than for beneficiaries in the overall population.</p>
|
|
<p>Understanding how <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s interact with Social Security is a pertinent research question in an applied policy context. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> has recently introduced a website designed specifically for <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s, created a fact sheet explaining the importance of the agency's administered benefits to these communities, and launched new field efforts to reach underserved <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> clients through reservation visits and video claiming (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2012a). Research on the relationship between <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s and the benefits that the <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> provides and administers can help inform these efforts.</p>
|
|
<p>Future research should continue to explore the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population in more depth and disaggregate the overall group to answer more specific research questions in the context of Social Security and other policy areas. Furthermore, it would be useful to explore Social Security administrative data to gauge the accuracy of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefit reporting among the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population.<sup><a href="#mn21" id="mt21">21</a></sup> Analysis of relative reliance on <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> income would also be worthwhile. Such additions to the literature would broaden our understanding of the determinants and consequences of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefit receipt among vulnerable groups.</p>
|
|
<div id="notes">
|
|
<h2>Notes</h2>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt1" id="mn1">1</a> Although <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments are funded by general tax revenues rather than by Social Security taxes, we include the program in our analysis because it is administered by the Social Security Administration (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>).</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt2" id="mn2">2</a> Additionally, each tribe has its own unique, intricate relationship with the federal government, and the remote locations of many reservations often stress these relationships and minimize communication between tribal and federal officials.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt3" id="mn3">3</a> For descriptions of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> retirement, survivor, and disability benefits, see <a href="/retirement">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/pgm/retirement.htm</a>, <a href="/survivor">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/pgm/survivors.htm</a>, and <a href="/disability">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/pgm/disability.htm</a>, respectively. For a description of the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program, see <a href="/ssi">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/pgm/ssi.htm</a>.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt4" id="mn4">4</a> This analysis does not focus on Native Hawaiians, who are represented by a separate variable in <abbr>PUMS</abbr>, but it does include a small number of self-identified <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s who listed Native Hawaiian as one of their other races.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt5" id="mn5">5</a> Federally recognized tribal governments generally must withhold Social Security taxes for employees, with an exception for work performed by tribal council members (<abbr class="spell">IRS</abbr> 2011).</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt6" id="mn6">6</a> Although we use a single <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> identifier, readers should be aware that the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population is heterogeneous. <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s have diverse histories and socioeconomic characteristics and represent a range of independent, self-governing nations.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt7" id="mn7">7</a> For an overview of Social Security's benefits for children see <a href="/pubs/EN-05-10085.pdf">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/pubs/10085.html</a>.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt8" id="mn8">8</a> The 2009 <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> subject definition list describes Social Security income as including "Social Security pensions and survivor benefits, permanent disability insurance payments made by the Social Security Administration prior to deductions for medical insurance, and railroad retirement insurance checks from the U.S. government. Medicare reimbursements are not included" (Census Bureau 2009, 78).</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt9" id="mn9">9</a> American Indian life expectancy varies by regional area, as do chronic disease rates among the elderly <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population (McDonald, Ludtke, and Allery 2002). Differences in chronic disease prevalence among <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> elderly population are related to rural geography, sex, age, health care access, and health behaviors (Moulton and others 2005).</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt10" id="mn10">10</a> The reciprocal correlation, marriage's protective effect, is interesting in that it may influence some of the socioeconomic disparities discussed later in this article.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt11" id="mn11">11</a> The authors also find that issues such as alcohol abuse, cigarette use, marijuana use, and physical fights at schools, all of which may disrupt education, are more common among American Indians than whites.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt12" id="mn12">12</a> The <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> variables used in this analysis are <abbr class="spell">WAGP</abbr> (wages or salary income in the past 12 months), and <abbr class="spell">POVPIP</abbr> (person poverty status recode), respectively (Census Bureau 2011b).</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt13" id="mn13">13</a> Poverty in this analysis comes from the <abbr>PUMS</abbr> variable <abbr class="spell">POVPIP</abbr>. Those who are institutionalized or living in group quarters such as military bases and college dormitories have missing values for this variable and are excluded from the analysis (Census Bureau 2011b).</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt14" id="mn14">14</a> Burkhauser and others (2012) find that the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> will underestimate the Social Security Disability Insurance population and the disabled <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> population because its questions do not address limitations on work activity. </p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt15" id="mn15">15</a> The <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> has introduced video service delivery options for individuals living in remote locations, such as some reservations. To help those without individual access to the internet, the <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> is working to allow centralized video claiming services at hospitals or other reservation facilities.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt16" id="mn16">16</a> For a basic description of how an individual qualifies for Social Security retirement and disability benefits see <a href="/pubs/EN-05-10035.pdf">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/pubs/10035.html</a> and <a href="/pubs/EN-05-10029.pdf">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/pubs/10029.html</a>, respectively.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt17" id="mn17">17</a> To reiterate, the <abbr>PUMS</abbr> disability variable does not represent Social Security's disability definition.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt18" id="mn18">18</a> The differences between the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> and total populations in the shares of divorced, separated, and never-married individuals receiving Social Security benefits are not statistically significant.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt19" id="mn19">19</a> For a description of how Social Security retirement benefits are calculated, see <a href="/pubs/EN-05-10070.pdf">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/pubs/10070.html</a>.</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt20" id="mn20">20</a> Additionally, for <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments, <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>s are exempted from many income and resource eligibility requirements related to the various types of disbursements (such as cash, stock, partnership interests, land, interest, individual Indian trust or lease income, and others) received as members of <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> tribes or groups. Over 569 federally recognized tribes in the United States, along with numerous nonfederally recognized tribes, have to be considered in the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> application process, adding to its administrative complexity (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2012b).</p>
|
|
<p><a href="#mt21" id="mn21">21</a> Previous research has shown that self-reported income from Social Security benefits often does not match Social Security administrative earnings records. Analyzing self-reported Social Security income for respondents in the 1990 Survey of Income and Program Participation, Olson (2002) finds that among beneficiaries aged <span class="nobr">18–64,</span> only 42 percent reported values consistent with <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> records. Among those aged 65 or older, the figure was 25 percent, with respondents being more likely to understate their income from Social Security. Unless there is a systemic bias in reporting Social Security income among the <abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr> population that is absent in the total population, the relative comparisons in this article should hold. However, future work should address that topic in more depth.</p>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div id="references">
|
|
<h2>References</h2>
|
|
<p>Barnes, Patricia M., Patricia F. Adams, and Eve Powell-Griner. 2010. <i>Health Characteristics of the American Indian or Alaska Native Adult Population: United States, <span class="nobr">2004–2008.</span></i> National Health Statistics Reports, Number 20. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr020.pdf">http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr020.pdf</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>Burkhauser, Richard <abbr title="the fifth">V</abbr>., T. Lynn Fisher, Andrew J. Houtenville, and Jennifer R. Tennant. 2012. "Using the 2009 <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>-<abbr class="spell">ASEC</abbr>-<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Matched Dataset to Show Who Is and Is Not Captured in the Official Six-Question Sequence on Disability." Paper presented at the 14th Annual Joint Conference of the Retirement Research Consortium, Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>, August <span class="nobr">2–3.</span> <a href="https://mrdrc.isr.umich.edu/publication/using-the-2009-cps-asec-ssa-matched-dataset-to-show-who-is-and-is-not-captured-in-the-official-six-question-sequence-on-disability/">http://www.nber.org/programs/ag/rrc/rrc2012/papers/4.3%20Burkhauser%20Fisher%20Houtenville.pdf</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>[<abbr class="spell">CDC</abbr>] <i>See</i> Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.</p>
|
|
<p>Census Bureau. 2006. "Data on Health and Well-being of American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Other Native Americans, Data Catalog." American Community Survey. <a href="https://aspe.hhs.gov/reports/data-health-well-being-american-indians-alaska-natives-other-native-americans">http://www.aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/06/catalog-ai-an-na/acs.htm</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>———. 2009. "American Community Survey: 2009 Subject Definitions." <a href="https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/tech_docs/subject_definitions/2009_ACSSubjectDefinitions.pdf">http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/data_documentation/SubjectDefinitions/2009_<abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>SubjectDefinitions.pdf</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>———. 2010. "Chapter 4. Sample Design and Selection." American Community Survey. <a href="https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/">http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/survey_methodology/Chapter_4_RevisedDec2010.pdf</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>———. 2011a. <i><span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> <abbr>PUMS</abbr> Data Dictionary.</i> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Census Bureau. <a href="https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/tech_docs/pums/data_dict/PUMSDataDict05_09.pdf">http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/data_documentation/pums/DataDict/PUMSDataDict05_09.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2011b. "Public Use Microdata Sample (<abbr>PUMS</abbr>) Files: <span class="nobr">2005–2009</span> <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> <span class="nobr">5-Year</span> Subjects in the <abbr>PUMS</abbr>." Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Census Bureau. <a href="https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/tech_docs/pums/subjects_in_pums/2005_2009_5yr_PUMS_Subjects.pdf">http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/data_documentation/pums/SubjectsinPUMS/2005_2009_5yr_PUMS_Subjects.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2011c. "When To Use <span class="nobr">1-year,</span> <span class="nobr">3-year,</span> or <span class="nobr">5-year</span> Estimates." American Community Survey. <a href="https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/guidance/estimates.html">http://www.census.gov/acs/www/guidance_for_data_users/estimates/</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2011d. "Why Were You Selected?" American Community Survey. http://www.census.gov/acs/www/about_the_survey/why_were_you_selected/.</p>
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<p>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2011. "Years of Potential Life Lost Before Age 75 for Selected Causes of Death, by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: United States, Selected Years <span class="nobr">1980–2008.</span>" Atlanta, <abbr title="Georgia">GA</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">CDC</abbr>. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/2011/025.pdf">http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/2011/025.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2012. "American Indian and Alaska Native (<abbr class="spell">AI/AN</abbr>) Populations." Atlanta, <abbr title="Georgia">GA</abbr>: Office of Minority Health & Health Disparities, <abbr class="spell">CDC</abbr>. http://www.cdc.gov/omhd/Populations/<abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>/<abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>.htm.</p>
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<p>DeVoe, Jill Fleury, and Kristin E. Darling-Churchill. 2008. <i>Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives: 2008.</i> <abbr class="spell">NCES</abbr> <span class="nobr">2008-084.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. <a href="http://www.nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008084.pdf">http://www.nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008084.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Hamilton, Anne. 1969. "<a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v32n7/v32n7p33.pdf#nameddest=article">Social Security Service to American Indians</a>." <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 32(7): <span class="nobr">33–36.</span></p>
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<p>Hurst, Michael. 1997. "The Determinants of Earnings Differentials for Indigenous Americans: Human Capital, Location, or Discrimination?" <i>The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance</i> (37)4: <span class="nobr">787–807.</span> </p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">IHS</abbr>] Indian Health Service. 2011. "Indian Health Disparities." Rockville, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: Department of Health and Human Services, <abbr class="spell">IHS</abbr>. http://www.ihs.gov/PublicAffairs/IHSBrochure/Disparities.asp.</p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">IRS</abbr>] Internal Revenue Service. 2011. "<abbr class="spell">ITG</abbr> <abbr class="spell">FAQ</abbr> #1 Answer—Are All Employees Subject to Social Security and Medicare Taxes?" http://www.irs.gov/Government-Entities/Indian-Tribal-Governments/<abbr class="spell">ITG</abbr>-<abbr class="spell">FAQ</abbr>-%231-Answer-Are-all-employees-subject-to-social-security-and-Medicare-taxes%3F.</p>
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<p>Jolliffe, Dean. 2004. <i>Rural Poverty at a Glance.</i> Rural Development Research Report <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr"><abbr class="spell">RDRR</abbr>-100.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/rdrr100/rdrr100.pdf.</p>
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<p>McDonald, Leander, Richard Ludtke, and Alan Allery. 2002. "Long Term Care and Health Needs of America's Native American Elders, Part <abbr title="one">I</abbr>: Testimony Submitted to the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs." Grand Forks, <abbr title="North Dakota">ND</abbr>: National Resource Center on Native American Aging, Center for Rural Health, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences. <a href="https://ruralhealth.und.edu/projects/nrcnaa/pdf/testimony.pdf">http://www.ruralhealth.und.edu/projects/nrcnaa/pdf/testimony.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Miller, Robert J. 2008. "American Indian Entrepreneurs: Unique Challenges, Unlimited Potential." Legal Research Paper Series Paper <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2008-20.</span> Portland, <abbr title="Oregon">OR</abbr>: Lewis & Clark Law School. http://www.lakotafunds.org/docs/indianent.pdf.</p>
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<p>Moulton, Patricia, Leander McDonald, Kyle Muus, Alana Knudson, Mary Wakefield, and Richard Ludtke. 2005. <i>Prevalence of Chronic Disease Among American Indian and Alaska Native Elders.</i> Center for Rural Health, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences. <a href="https://ruralhealth.und.edu/projects/nrcnaa/pdf/chronic_disease1005.pdf">http://ruralhealth.und.edu/projects/nrcnaa/pdf/chronic_disease1005.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Olson, Janice A. 2002. "Social Security Benefit Reporting in the Survey of Income and Program Participation and in Social Security Administrative Records." <abbr class="spell">ORES</abbr> Working Paper <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 96. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Social Security Administration. <a href="/policy/docs/workingpapers/wp96.html">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/workingpapers/wp96.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Sandefur, Gary D. 1986. "American Indian Migration and Economic Opportunities." <i>International Migration Review</i> (20)1: <span class="nobr">55–68.</span></p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>] Social Security Administration. 2012a. "American Indians and Alaska Natives (<abbr class="spell">AIAN</abbr>)." Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="/people/aian/">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/aian/</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2012b. "<abbr>POMS</abbr> Section <abbr class="spell">SI</abbr> 00830.000. Unearned Income." Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="https://secure.ssa.gov/apps10/poms.nsf/lnx/0500830000">https://secure.ssa.gov/apps10/poms.nsf/lnx/0500830000</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2012c. "Supplemental Security Income Home Page." Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="/ssi">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/ssi/</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2012d. "Understanding Supplemental Security Income: <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Spotlight on Resources 2012 Edition." Baltimore, <abbr title="Maryland">MD</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="/ssi/spotlights/spot-resources.htm">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/ssi/spotlights/spot-resources.htm</a>.</p>
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<p>Tamborini, Christopher R. 2007. "The Never-Married in Old Age: Projections and Concerns for the Near Future." <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> (67)2: <span class="nobr">25–40.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v67n2/v67n2p25.html">http://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v67n2/v67n2p25.html</a>. </p>
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