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<title>Why Researchers Now Rely on Surveys for Race Data on OASDI and SSI Programs: A Comparison of Four Major Surveys</title>
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<h1 itemprop="headline">Why Researchers Now Rely on Surveys for Race Data on <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Programs: A Comparison of Four Major Surveys</h1>
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<div id="hByline">by <span itemprop="author">Patricia P. Martin</span><br>Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2016-01</span> (released January 2016)</div>
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<p>The author is with the Office of Retirement Policy, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, Social Security Administration.</p>
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<p><i>Acknowledgments:</i> Irena Dushi, Howard Iams, Anya Olsen, and Chris Tamborini provided helpful input and suggestions as survey and technical experts. Fran Huber and Joel Najar provided key background information. Special thanks to Kevin Whitman, Natalie Lu, and Tom Hungerford for their encouragement and support.</p>
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<p>The findings and conclusions presented in this note are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Social Security Administration.</p>
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</div>
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</div>
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<h2>Introduction</h2>
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<div class="abbrtable">
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<table role="presentation">
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<caption>Selected Abbreviations</caption>
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<colgroup span="1" style="width:25%"></colgroup>
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<colgroup span="1"></colgroup>
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<tbody>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr></td>
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<td>American Community Survey</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr></td>
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<td>Current Population Survey</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr></td>
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<td>Enumeration at Birth</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">EAE</abbr></td>
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<td>Enumeration at Entry</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr></td>
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<td>Health and Retirement Study</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr></td>
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<td>Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr>SIPP</abbr></td>
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<td>Survey of Income and Program Participation</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr></td>
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<td>Social Security Administration</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr></td>
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<td>Supplemental Security Income</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td><abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr></td>
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<td>Social Security number</td>
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</tr>
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</tbody>
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</table>
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</div>
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<p>The characteristics of beneficiaries of the <span class="nobr">Old-Age,</span> Survivors, and Disability Insurance (<abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr>, or Social Security) and Supplemental Security Income (<abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr>) programs are of longstanding interest to researchers, advocacy groups, and policymakers. The Social Security Administration (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>) addresses the subject of beneficiary characteristics by publishing program statistics that are segmented by various demographic categories. Much of this work, such as one of the agency's most comprehensive publications—the <i>Annual Statistical Supplement to the Social Security Bulletin</i> (or the <i>Supplement</i>)—is based on <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s administrative data. However, statistics produced using administrative data no longer include a common characteristic many stakeholders use to analyze <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> programs—race.</p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> discontinued the publication of data by race for the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program after 2002 and for the <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> program after 2009 (Martin and Murphy 2014). This is largely because of changes to <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s process for assigning new Social Security numbers (<abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s), a process called enumeration. Nearly all individuals (96 percent) now receive their original <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s as part of the hospital-birth registration process under a procedure called Enumeration at Birth (<abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr>). Qualified immigrants receive most of the remaining new <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s upon entry into the United States under a procedure called Enumeration at Entry (<abbr class="spell">EAE</abbr>). <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> does not collect any associated race or ethnicity data as part of these expedient and cost-efficient procedures.<sup><a href="#mn1" id="mt1">1</a></sup></p>
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<p>Today, relatively few individuals manually file an original Social Security card application at an agency field office. Moreover, providing race and ethnicity information is voluntary, as it is unnecessary for administering the program. Consequently, the administrative data on race and ethnicity that <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> does collect comes from a self-selecting sample that represents an ever-dwindling proportion of the population.<sup><a href="#mn2" id="mt2">2</a></sup> Furthermore, although <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> had collected race and ethnicity data in earlier years, the agency changed the number and definition of race categories over the years, making <span class="nobr">long-term</span> comparisons of race data statistically meaningless.</p>
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<p>In the absence of reliable administrative data for race categories, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> researchers now primarily use data from four major surveys—(1) the Current Population Survey (<abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>); (2) the Survey of Income and Program Participation (<abbr>SIPP</abbr>); (3) the American Community Survey (<abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>); and (4) the Health and Retirement Study (<abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr>)—to examine <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program use by race and ethnicity. The race data collected in these surveys are self-reported, and although there are inherent technical issues with that process, those data are the primary source of national race data available (Ríos, Romero, and Ramírez 2014). However, each data set possesses a unique set of advantages and limitations for analyzing the <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> programs.</p>
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<p>This note provides a historical background on <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s race and ethnicity data collection. It compares the four alternative data sources most commonly used to estimate <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> program statistics by beneficiary race and ethnicity. This overview is designed to help individuals better understand the race and ethnicity data available in existing <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> publications. It may be of use to researchers considering future <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> analyses as well.</p>
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<h2>Background</h2>
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<p>Before <abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr> began in 1987 (followed by <abbr class="spell">EAE</abbr> in 2002), all individuals were required to file Form <span class="nobr">SS-5</span> to apply for an <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>, to report a change to the information previously submitted (such as a name change), or to request a replacement Social Security card.<sup><a href="#mn3" id="mt3">3</a></sup> Because federal agencies do not need race or ethnicity data to administer their programs, Form <span class="nobr">SS-5</span> is unusual among federal forms (particularly those serving as applications) in that it enables applicants to report their race and ethnicity voluntarily. Individuals have been able to report that information since race and ethnicity designations first appeared on the form in 1936.</p>
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<p>Before 1980, Form <span class="nobr">SS-5</span> did not indicate whether providing information on race and ethnicity was voluntary, and many applicants probably assumed it was required.<sup><a href="#mn4" id="mt4">4</a></sup> Applicants were allowed to select one of three races: white, negro, or other (specify). <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> classified as “unknown” the race of those who did not make a selection. In 1980, the number of race/ethnicity categories on the Form <span class="nobr">SS-5</span> expanded to five: white (non-Hispanic), black (non-Hispanic), Hispanic, Asian or Pacific Islander, and American Indian or Alaska Native.</p>
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<p>In 1997, the Office of Management and Budget issued revised standards for the classification of federal data on race and ethnicity that established a minimum of five race categories and the separate consideration of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, regardless of race. On the <span class="nobr">SS-5</span> today, an applicant can select from among seven race categories: white, black/African American, Asian, Native Hawaiian, Other Pacific Islander, Alaska Native, and American Indian. A separate question allows the applicant to select his or her ethnicity—Hispanic or Latino—by answering yes or no. The use of expanded race categories in later years could not easily be reconciled with data from earlier years that used fewer categories. As a result, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s primary statistical publication, the <i>Annual Statistical Supplement of the Social Security Bulletin,</i> retained only the original three categories—white, black, or other—for reporting program data by race until the <i>2011 Supplement</i> in which the agency discontinued providing race and ethnicity breakdowns.</p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s collection and use of data has always been restricted to statistical and research purposes. Data on race and ethnicity are subject to legal and policy constraints that exceed the standard confidentiality rules for administrative data. The use of race data is narrowly restricted to statistical linkage or summary statistics (Alexander 1980). <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> originally used race data to aid in identifying individuals, but now it uses the data for statistical and research purposes only (Scherr and Nelson 1980). Several <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> publications used only administrative race data to provide comprehensive information on beneficiary racial or ethnic characteristics (Lingg 1978, 1980, 1983, 1984, 1986). Scott (1999) discusses in detail the limitations of using <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data for that purpose.</p>
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<p>In the past, most individuals completed Form <span class="nobr">SS-5</span> to request an original <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> when they first applied for a job. In the <span class="nobr">mid-1980</span>s, individuals younger than age 22 accounted for almost all new <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> applicants (94 percent), with those younger than age 15 accounting for 74 percent and individuals younger than age 5 accounting for 41 percent (Cronin 1985). By contrast, almost all of today's <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> applicants are younger than age 5. The change began when the Tax Reform Act of 1986 required taxpayers claiming children as dependents to obtain an <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> for each child aged 5 or older, which in turn created a spike in the demand for issuing <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s to children at earlier ages. Because of that demand and the fact that the <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> had by then been adopted almost universally as a standard identifier, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> in 1987 began entering into agreements with all 50 states to provide the <abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr> service option (Scott 1999). Today, parents have reasons unrelated to Social Security to acquire <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s for their children, such as buying savings bonds in their name, opening a bank account, obtaining medical coverage, or applying for certain government benefits.<sup><a href="#mn5" id="mt5">5</a></sup></p>
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<p><abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr> allows parents to voluntarily apply for <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s for their newborns as part of the hospital-birth registration process. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> assigns about 96 percent of new <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s to infants through this convenient service option, saving the time a parent would otherwise have spent gathering the necessary documentation, completing an <span class="nobr">SS-5</span> application, and visiting (or mailing original documents to) a field office for processing. Instead, participating hospitals forward the <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> request and other birth registration data to their states' vital statistics agencies, which then send the information to <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr> does not provide <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> with race and ethnicity data because they are classified under “Information for Medical and Health Use Only” on the birth certificate and are unnecessary for administering the <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> programs (Scott 1999). In fiscal year 2015, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> assigned almost 4 million <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s to newborns through the <abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr> program (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2015a).</p>
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<p>In 2002, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> began the <abbr class="spell">EAE</abbr> pilot, a joint effort with the Departments of State (<abbr class="spell">DoS</abbr>) and Homeland Security (<abbr class="spell">DHS</abbr>). <abbr class="spell">EAE</abbr> initially allowed a noncitizen aged 18 or older who had been admitted to the United States as a lawful permanent resident to obtain an <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> based on the data collected by DoS during the immigration visa process conducted in the individual's home country. <abbr class="spell">DoS</abbr> transmits the enumeration data to <abbr class="spell">DHS</abbr> after the visa has been granted. <abbr class="spell">DHS</abbr> updates certain data, if necessary, before sending the application to <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> for an <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>, which the individual receives upon admission to the United States. Data collected for this program do not include the applicant's race or ethnicity. In 2009, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> expanded <abbr class="spell">EAE</abbr> to all people, regardless of age. In fiscal year 2015, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> issued over 229,000 Social Security cards through <abbr class="spell">EAE</abbr>—222,570 original cards and 6,754 replacement cards (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2015b).</p>
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<h2>The <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> as a Record Link</h2>
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<p>For research and statistical purposes, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> develops and relies on information from linked administrative and survey data, which the agency then shares with other researchers, policymakers, and the public (Fisher 2007; Davies and Fisher 2009). Linking <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s administrative data with survey data yields a broader set of demographic and socioeconomic information and provides data of better quality than those available from a survey alone (Haines and Greenberg 2005; Davies and Fisher 2009). <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> uses these data to analyze and research policy initiatives for the <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> programs as well as the earnings of the working and beneficiary populations (Fisher 2007). <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s biggest data-linkage partner is the Census Bureau.</p>
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<p>Substantial methodological benefits exist for linking administrative data with survey data. One major advantage involves data accuracy. When both an administrative file and a survey collect comparable data, statisticians and policy analysts are better able to evaluate the extent of underreporting and overreporting. For example, survey respondents often confuse the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> programs when reporting payments or benefits respectively received. Further, by matching survey responses to administrative data, agencies can compare the benefit amounts reported by survey respondents with the actual dollar amounts distributed by the agency (Fisher 2007). In addition, matching administrative and survey data provides operational efficiencies by using data previously collected and validated by another government agency, thereby saving the time and money it would take to collect the data independently. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data linkages are available for three of the four surveys this note examines.</p>
|
|
<h2>Comparison of Surveys</h2>
|
|
<p>This section presents profiles of the four surveys that provide race and ethnicity data for use in analyzing <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> beneficiary populations. The profiles highlight each survey's design, methodology, and history; the categories for which the survey collects race and ethnicity data; and the survey's strengths and limitations for analyzing <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> program data. Table 1 summarizes the attributes of four surveys that collect race and ethnicity data on the <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> programs.</p>
|
|
<div class="table">
|
|
<table class="textTable">
|
|
<caption><span class="tableNumber">Table 1. </span>Attributes of four surveys that collect race and ethnicity data on the <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> programs</caption>
|
|
<colgroup span="1" style="width:16em"></colgroup>
|
|
<colgroup span="4" style="width:16em"></colgroup>
|
|
<thead>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stubHeading" scope="col">Attribute</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Current Population Survey (<abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>)</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Survey of Income and Program Participation (<abbr>SIPP</abbr>)</th>
|
|
<th scope="col">American Community Survey (<abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>) <sup>a</sup></th>
|
|
<th scope="col">Health and Retirement Study (<abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr>)</th>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</thead>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Beneficiary/recipient type</th>
|
|
<td>Distinguishes between <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> (retirement, disability, and survivor) and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> <span class="nobr">(old-age,</span> disability)</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>Distinguishes between <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> (retirement, disability, and survivor) and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> <span class="nobr">(old-age,</span> disability)</li>
|
|
<li>Classifies types more accurately than the <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr></li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>Distinguishes between <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients</td>
|
|
<td>Distinguishes between <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> (retirement, disability, and survivor) and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> <span class="nobr">(old-age,</span> disability)</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Limitations</th>
|
|
<td>Underreports <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and (relative to <abbr>SIPP</abbr>) significantly underreports <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients</td>
|
|
<td>Reports benefit amounts that reflect levels net of Medicare premium deductions more closely than actual (gross) benefit levels</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>Does not distinguish between <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiary or <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipient types</li>
|
|
<li>Underreports <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>Omits individuals younger than age 51</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Sample size</th>
|
|
<td>60,000 housing units</td>
|
|
<td><span class="nobr">20,000–65,500</span> housing units (varies by sample wave panel)</td>
|
|
<td>About 3 million households per year</td>
|
|
<td><span class="nobr">31,000–38,400</span> households (varies by sample wave panel)</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Frequency</th>
|
|
<td>Annual</td>
|
|
<td>Annual<br>(Prior to 2014, every 4 months)</td>
|
|
<td>Monthly</td>
|
|
<td>Biennial</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Geographic scope</th>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>National</li>
|
|
<li>Regional</li>
|
|
<li>State (large sampling errors for smaller states)</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>National</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>National (includes Puerto Rico)</li>
|
|
<li>Regional</li>
|
|
<li>State</li>
|
|
<li>Local</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>National</li>
|
|
<li>Regional</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row"><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data linkage available</th>
|
|
<td>Yes</td>
|
|
<td>Yes</td>
|
|
<td>No</td>
|
|
<td>Yes</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Minority oversampling</th>
|
|
<td>No</td>
|
|
<td>Yes</td>
|
|
<td>Yes</td>
|
|
<td>Yes</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Longitudinal design</th>
|
|
<td>No</td>
|
|
<td>Yes</td>
|
|
<td>No</td>
|
|
<td>Yes</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Institutionalized population surveyed</th>
|
|
<td>No</td>
|
|
<td>No</td>
|
|
<td>Yes</td>
|
|
<td>Yes (nursing home residents)</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Ages surveyed</th>
|
|
<td>15 or older</td>
|
|
<td>All</td>
|
|
<td>15 or older</td>
|
|
<td>51 or older</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr class="topPad1">
|
|
<th class="stub0" scope="row">Data errors resulting from privacy restrictions</th>
|
|
<td>Yes, for respondents aged 65 or older</td>
|
|
<td>No</td>
|
|
<td>Yes, for respondents aged 65 or older</td>
|
|
<td>No</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
<tfoot>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="firstNote" colspan="5">SOURCES: Census Bureau (n.d. a, n.d. b, n.d. c); University of Michigan (2015).</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td class="lastNote" colspan="5">a. Survey response is mandatory for the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>.</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tfoot>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<h3>Current Population Survey</h3>
|
|
<p>The <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>, sponsored jointly by the Census Bureau and the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is a monthly cross-sectional survey of about 60,000 eligible households in the United States. It provides comprehensive data on the labor force, including employment, unemployment, persons not actively involved in the workforce, hours of work, earnings, and other demographic and labor force characteristics.</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Design, methodology, and history</span>. The <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> is the primary source of <abbr>U.S.</abbr> labor force statistics and includes extensive demographic data. The <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> Annual Social and Economic Supplement (<abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>/<abbr class="spell">ASEC</abbr>) is a cross-sectional survey examining the social and economic well-being of the <abbr>U.S.</abbr> civilian noninstitutionalized population. It collects annual supplemental data on family characteristics, work experience, prior-year income from all sources, receipt of noncash benefits, program participation, geographic mobility, and health insurance coverage. Households in the <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>/<abbr class="spell">ASEC</abbr> sample are interviewed once a year for two consecutive years (Census <span class="nobr">Bureau, n.d. b).</span></p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Race and ethnicity categories</span>. Since January 2003, <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> respondents have been able to select from one or more of the following five race categories: white, black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander. An additional survey question addresses Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino ethnicity, irrespective of race. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> publications that have used <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> data on racial and ethnic differences among program beneficiaries include Hendley and Bilimoria (1999); Gesumaria and Weaver (2001); Koenig (2003); Olsen (2005/2006); McNabb and others (2009); Davies and Fisher (2009); Weaver (2010); Olsen and O'Leary (2011); Anguelov, Iams, and Purcell (2012); and Iams and Purcell (2013).</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Advantages for <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> research</span>. The <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>—</p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>distinguishes among different types of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefits received among all races and ethnicities;</li>
|
|
<li>collects data that are representative at national, state, and regional levels;</li>
|
|
<li>enables linkage with <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data to yield a broader set of demographic and socioeconomic information; and</li>
|
|
<li>approximates actual gross benefit amounts, including Medicare deductions.</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Limitations for <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> research</span>. The <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>—</p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>underreports <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefits and significantly underreports <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments because <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients may confuse the two programs or fail to report benefits and payments (Huynh, Rupp, and Sears 2002; Fisher 2007; Nicholas and Wiseman 2009; Davies and Fisher 2009);</li>
|
|
<li>does not collect data on <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients younger than age 15, thereby restricting the analysis of program participation to children aged <span class="nobr">15–17;</span></li>
|
|
<li>does not provide local geographic data; and</li>
|
|
<li>employs techniques such as income topcoding, rank proximity swapping, and age perturbation to protect the privacy of respondents aged 65 or older, which produces errors in the data for that age category (Alexander, Davern, and Stevenson 2010; Census Bureau 2010; Leonesio and others 2012).</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<h3>Survey of Income and Program Participation</h3>
|
|
<p>The <abbr>SIPP</abbr> is the Census Bureau's most extensive source of information on income and program participation. It collects data and measures change with regard to the nation's economic well-being and the family dynamics of households therein.</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Design, methodology, and history</span>. The <abbr>SIPP</abbr> is a household-based longitudinal survey of the demographic and socioeconomic well-being of the <abbr>U.S.</abbr> civilian noninstitutionalized population and of adults in the military living in on- or <span class="nobr">off-post</span> households with at least one civilian adult member. The survey principally provides monthly information about cash and noncash income and the program participation of individuals, families, and households. It also collects data on taxes, assets, liabilities, participation in government transfer programs, and health insurance coverage (Census <span class="nobr">Bureau, n.d. c).</span></p>
|
|
<p>The <abbr>SIPP</abbr> collects more detailed data than any other national survey on program eligibility, access and participation, transfer income, and <span class="nobr">in-kind</span> benefits. By design, the <abbr>SIPP</abbr> oversamples low-income households; as such, it covers large numbers of minority households. From its inception in 1983 through 2013, the <abbr>SIPP</abbr> interviewed sample (panel) households at <span class="nobr">4-month</span> intervals over a 3- to <span class="nobr">4-year</span> period. Each interview collected monthly data about the previous 4 months which, when aggregated, produced annual data.</p>
|
|
<p>In 2014, following a <span class="nobr">5-year</span> redesign effort, the Census Bureau revised the <abbr>SIPP</abbr> methodology. The new <abbr>SIPP</abbr> includes a <span class="nobr">4-year</span> panel, but interviews respondents annually and asks them to recall details of demographic characteristics and program participation over the previous calendar year. With some subjects, the new <abbr>SIPP</abbr> applies an events-history format to identify important dates of changes. The plan is to link <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data on earnings and benefits to the survey data. At present, the data properties for <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefits generated by the revised process are unknown, as are the survey's major strengths and weaknesses. The Census Bureau asserts that the original and revised <abbr>SIPP</abbr> methodologies produce similar results, while saving tax dollars.</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Race and ethnicity categories</span>. <abbr>SIPP</abbr> respondents select from one or more of the following five race categories: white, black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander.<sup><a href="#mn6" id="mt6">6</a></sup> <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> researchers have used <abbr>SIPP</abbr> data in many studies analyzing racial and ethnic differences among <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients. Examples include Olson (2002); Huynh, Rupp, and Sears (2002); Koenig (2003); Sears and Rupp (2003); Gottschalk and Huynh (2005); Neumark and Powers (2005); DeCesaro and Hemmeter (2008); Bridges and Choudhury (2009); Tamborini, Iams, and Whitman (2009); Tamborini, Cupito, and Shoffner (2011); Iams and Tamborini (2012); Iams and Purcell (2013); and Bailey and Hemmeter (2014).</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Advantages for <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> research</span>. The <abbr>SIPP</abbr>—</p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>distinguishes between <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefit types (retirement, disability, and survivor) and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payment types <span class="nobr">(old-age</span> and disability) among all races, ethnicities, and ages, as well as for differing definitions of disability (Brault 2012);</li>
|
|
<li>compiles data that are representative at a national level;</li>
|
|
<li>enables longitudinal analysis by tracking changes over time;</li>
|
|
<li>does not misclassify <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients as much as the <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> does because the <abbr>SIPP</abbr> overreports <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefits and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments (Koenig 2003; Fisher 2005, 2007; Davies and Fisher 2009);</li>
|
|
<li>oversamples minorities at panel outset to mitigate later attrition; and</li>
|
|
<li>enables linkage with <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data to yield a broader set of demographic and socioeconomic information.</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Limitations for <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> research</span>. The <abbr>SIPP</abbr>—</p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>does not provide local-level geographic data, and data are not always representative at regional or state levels;</li>
|
|
<li>includes respondents who are prone to report receiving only <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefits when they in fact receive <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments only or concurrent <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefits (Davies and Fisher 2009); and</li>
|
|
<li>includes respondents who are prone to report <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefit income net of Medicare premium deductions rather than actual benefit payments (Iams and Purcell 2013).</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<h3>American Community Survey</h3>
|
|
<p>The <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> is an ongoing nationwide survey that provides vital information annually about the United States and its people. Information from the survey generates data that help determine how federal and state funds are distributed each year.</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Design, methodology, and history</span>. The <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> is the premier source of information about the American people and the workforce, distributing about 250,000 questionnaires monthly. The <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> samples about 3 million addresses each year, resulting in nearly 2 million final interviews. It has replaced the decennial census <span class="nobr">long-form</span> sample questionnaire. Following testing from 2000 through 2004, the Census Bureau began collecting <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> questionnaire responses on a rolling basis every month in 2005, instead of once every 10 years. The <span class="nobr">7-question</span> <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> form replaced the decennial's long, <span class="nobr">50-question</span> form in 2010. The Census Bureau releases the <span class="nobr">1-,</span> <span class="nobr">3-,</span> and <span class="nobr">5-year</span> survey data to the public on a phased schedule the following year, generally in the order of shortest-to-longest survey cycle, and updates the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> yearly. By producing <span class="nobr">1-,</span> <span class="nobr">3-,</span> and <span class="nobr">5-year</span> estimates, the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> reflects data collected over time, compared with “point-in-time” estimates (such as the decennial census) that approximate the characteristics of an area on a specific date (Census <span class="nobr">Bureau, n.d. a).</span></p>
|
|
<p>Of the surveys discussed here, only the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> includes both the nation's civilian institutionalized and noninstitutionalized populations. Including the civilian institutionalized population—residents housed in group quarters, such as college dormitories, prisons, barracks, shelters, and nursing homes—allows the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> to capture more data on African American <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients, who are overrepresented among the populations in correctional facilities and nursing homes (Martin and Murphy 2014).</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Race and ethnicity categories</span>. The <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> features both basic and detailed groups for race and ethnicity. The basic groups include five single-race categories (white, black or African American, Asian, American Indian and Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander) and Other, which includes two or more races in various combinations. American Indians and Alaska Natives may provide any tribal designation. Detailed Asian groups include Asian Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese. Detailed Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander groups include Native Hawaiian, Samoan, Tongan, Guamanian or Chamorro, and Fijian. <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> respondents may identify ethnicity by selecting “Hispanic or Latino” origin; detailed subgroups include Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Guatemalan, and Salvadoran. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> studies that used <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> data by race and ethnicity include Martin (2007); Hemmeter (2009); Smith-Kaprosy, Martin, and Whitman (2012); and Martin and Murphy (2014).</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Advantages for <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> research</span>. The <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>—</p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>distinguishes between <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefits and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments;</li>
|
|
<li>compiles data that are representative at all geographic levels: national, state, regional, and local levels (all counties and places, including census tracts and block groups with populations of less than 20,000, <span class="nobr">20,000–65,000,</span> and more than 65,000);</li>
|
|
<li>has the largest sample size of all household surveys;</li>
|
|
<li>has the highest response rate of all household surveys because it is mandatory;</li>
|
|
<li>includes both noninstitutionalized and institutionalized populations;</li>
|
|
<li>provides yearly estimates for all states, cities, metropolitan areas, counties, and population groups of 65,000 or more residents;</li>
|
|
<li>allows for more detailed and statistically significant analyses of population subsets than do the <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> and <abbr>SIPP</abbr> (Martin and Murphy 2014; Smith-Kaprosy, Martin, and Whitman 2012; Martin 2007);</li>
|
|
<li>includes race and ethnicity data for many broad and detailed groups and subgroups; and</li>
|
|
<li>oversamples the American Indian and Alaska Native population.</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Limitations for <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> research</span>. The <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>—</p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>does not distinguish between <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> retirement, survivor, and disability benefits, or between <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> retirement and disability benefits;</li>
|
|
<li>includes respondents who may confuse <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments with <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefits or fail to report payments;</li>
|
|
<li>excludes <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> beneficiaries younger than age 15, so analyses of program participation among children is restricted to those aged <span class="nobr">15–17;</span></li>
|
|
<li>employs techniques such as income topcoding, rank proximity swapping, and age perturbation to protect the privacy of respondents aged 65 or older, which produce errors in the data for that age category (Alexander, Davern, and Stevenson 2010);</li>
|
|
<li>lacks depth in survey questions used to determine disability, meaning that <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> data fails to identify about <span class="nobr">one-third</span> of the population aged <span class="nobr">25–61</span> that either receives Disability Insurance (<abbr class="spell">DI</abbr>) benefits or <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> disability payments (Burkhauser and others 2012); and</li>
|
|
<li>does not enable linkage with <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data.</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<h3>Health and Retirement Study</h3>
|
|
<p>The <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr>, conducted by the University of Michigan, is a biennial longitudinal panel study that surveys a representative sample of approximately 26,000 Americans aged 51 or older. The survey explores the changes in labor force participation and the health transitions that individuals undergo toward the end of their work lives and in the years that follow.</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Design, methodology, and history</span>. Unlike the other three surveys, the <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr> is not government-administered. Rather, it is conducted by the University of Michigan under a cooperative agreement with the Department of Health and Human Services' National Institute of Aging and <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. Longitudinal studies are crucial for understanding how health and economic disparities for individuals evolve with age.</p>
|
|
<p>The <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr> focuses primarily on the intersection between health, retirement, and economic status in later life. The survey provides detailed information on each of those topics as well as on employment history and the availability of pensions, work-related disability and related benefits, family composition and resource transfers, and health insurance and service use. The <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr> measures health conditions comprehensively, encompassing a range of chronic diseases, disabilities, cognition, depression, and sensory functioning, as well as risk factors such as smoking, drinking, exercise, and body weight. In recent waves, the study was expanded to include biomarkers and enriched psychosocial measures, which greatly enhance the potential for studying the mechanisms underlying disparities in health (University of Michigan 2015).</p>
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|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Race and ethnicity categories</span>. <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr> respondents select from eight racial categories: white/Caucasian, black/African American, American Indian, Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, and Other. Respondents may indicate Hispanic or Latino origin regardless of race and may further specify Mexican American/Chicano, Puerto Rican, Cuban American, and Other origins. Prior to 2006, respondents could not report multiple races or ethnicities. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> publications that have used <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr> race and ethnicity data include Olson (1999); Gustman and Steinmeier (2000); Choudhury (2001/2002, 2002); Dushi and Honig (2007, 2008); Dushi and Iams (2008); Purcell (2012); and Murphy, Gourd, and Begay (2014).</p>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Advantages for <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> research</span>. The <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr>—</p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>distinguishes between <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiary types (retirement, disability, and survivor) and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipient types <span class="nobr">(old-age</span> and disability);</li>
|
|
<li>provides national and regional data;</li>
|
|
<li>enables longitudinal analysis by tracking respondents over time;</li>
|
|
<li>oversamples minorities at panel outset to mitigate later attrition; and</li>
|
|
<li>enables linkage with <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data.</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<p class="noindent"><span class="h4">Limitations for <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> research</span>. The <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr>—</p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>provides no unrestricted state and local data; and</li>
|
|
<li>excludes the population younger than age 51.</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<h2>Discussion</h2>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data linkages with <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>, <abbr>SIPP</abbr>, and <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr> data yield broader sets of demographic and socioeconomic information and provide data of better quality than those that administrative records or surveys alone provide. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data linkages with the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> are not currently available. Each of the surveys, except for the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>, distinguish among the different types of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> benefit receipt. The <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> do not collect data for <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> beneficiaries younger than age 15, so analyses of program participation among children is restricted to those aged <span class="nobr">15–17;</span> conversely, the <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr> population is limited to persons aged 51 or older. Only the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> includes the entire institutionalized population. Some research suggests that the <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> tends to underreport <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> receipt and substantially underreports <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> payments (relative to the <abbr>SIPP</abbr>), but accurately approximates actual gross <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefit amounts, including Medicare premiums. In addition, some research has found that the <abbr>SIPP</abbr> has a lower rate of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiary misclassification (versus the <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>), but the benefit amounts recorded in the <abbr>SIPP</abbr> more closely reflect net <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> benefits minus Medicare premium deductions. Therefore, analysts may underestimate total income and thus overestimate the share of the population in poverty and eligible for participation in poverty-related programs. The <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> are also subject to errors in data for individuals aged 65 or older. In addition, the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> has data limitations regarding disability program participants.</p>
|
|
<p><abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> beneficiary data by race and ethnicity are available at the national level from all four surveys and at the regional level from each of the surveys discussed in this note except the <abbr>SIPP</abbr>. Beneficiary data by race and ethnicity at the state level are available from the <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> only, and at the local level from the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr> only. Statistical analyses by race and ethnicity typically use national data.</p>
|
|
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
|
|
<p>Policymakers are increasingly interested in the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients, as the minority shares of the senior and disabled populations grow. Although <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> administrative data on race and ethnicity are no longer viable, four major surveys—the <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>, the <abbr>SIPP</abbr>, the <abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>, and the <abbr class="spell">HRS</abbr>—provide valuable data on the characteristics of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients. For most policy and social science research, the various surveys, as currently constituted and having improved over time, are adequate. However, each has its own advantages and limitations for analyzing <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>-administered programs. Stakeholders, particularly advocacy groups, have voiced a need for more detailed and robust race data in the future that addresses the demographics of <abbr class="spell">OASDI</abbr> beneficiaries and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> recipients. Potential improvements that could assist researchers in meeting stakeholders' needs are better state- and regional-level data and additional linkages with <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s administrative records.</p>
|
|
<p>For further discussion on the importance of collecting race and ethnicity data and other related information, see American Sociological Association (2003); El Nasser (2013); Humes, Jones, and Ramirez (2011); Macartney, Bishaw, and Fontenot (2013); Krogstad and Cohn (2014); and <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> (2014).</p>
|
|
<div id="notes">
|
|
<h2>Notes</h2>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt1" id="mn1">1</a> Each year, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> processes almost 6 million original and more than 10 million replacement Social Security card applications. In total, about 41 million individuals visited <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> field offices in fiscal year 2015. Without <abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr>, <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>'s field offices would have seen an additional 4 million visitors during the fiscal year. Processing a <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr> request costs about $10 for <abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr> and about $6 for <abbr class="spell">EAE</abbr>, versus about $33 if a field office visit is required (<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> 2015a, 2015b). </p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt2" id="mn2">2</a> Some of the individuals enumerated at birth or upon entry into the United States will submit a new application for a Social Security card at some point during their lives, often because of a name change or lost card. This process increases the share of total <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>s with associated race/ethnicity data beyond what would have been available using the original enumeration alone, but to date, reporting this information is voluntary and insufficient for maintaining the overall reliability of administrative race/ethnicity information.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt3" id="mn3">3</a> See <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Application for a Social Security Card. <a href="/forms/ss-5.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/forms/ss-5.pdf</a>.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt4" id="mn4">4</a> For an image of the <span class="nobr">pre-1980</span> Form <span class="nobr">SS-5,</span> see <a href="/history/ssn/ss5.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/history/ssn/ss5.html</a>.</p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt5" id="mn5">5</a> For a detailed historical account of the <abbr class="spell">SSN</abbr>, see Puckett (2009). </p>
|
|
<p> <a href="#mt6" id="mn6">6</a> Before 1997, the <abbr>SIPP</abbr> combined the “Asian” and “Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander” categories into a single “Asian and Pacific Islander” category.</p>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div id="references">
|
|
<h2>References</h2>
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|
<p>Alexander, J. Trent, Michael Davern, and Betsey Stevenson. 2010. “Inaccurate Age and Sex Data in the Census <abbr>PUMS</abbr> Files: Evidence and Implications.” <abbr class="spell">NBER</abbr> Working Paper No. 15703. Cambridge, <abbr title="Massachusetts">MA</abbr>: National Bureau of Economic Research. <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w15703">http://www.nber.org/papers/w15703</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>Alexander, Lois. 1980. “Legal/Policy Issues in the Collection of Race/Ethnic Data on Form <span class="nobr">SS-5.</span>” In <i>Proceedings of the Survey Research Methods Section, American Statistical Association (1980),</i> <span class="nobr">341–346.</span> Alexandria, <abbr class="spell">VA</abbr>: American Statistical Association. http://www.amstat.org/sections/srms/Proceedings/y1980f.html.</p>
|
|
<p>American Sociological Association. 2003. “The Importance of Collecting Data and Doing Social Scientific Research on Race.” Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: American Sociological Association. <a href="https://www.asanet.org/wp-content/uploads/savvy/images/press/docs/pdf/asa_race_statement.pdf">http://www.asanet.org/images/press/docs/pdf/asa_race_statement.pdf</a>.</p>
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|
<p>Anguelov, Chris E., Howard M. Iams, and Patrick J. Purcell. 2012. “Shifting Income Sources of the Aged.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 72(3): <span class="nobr">59–68.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v72n3/v72n3p59.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v72n3/v72n3p59.html</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>Bailey, Michelle Stegman, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. 2014. “Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Program Participants, 2010 Update.” Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2014-02.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2014-02.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2014-02.html</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>Brault, Matthew W. 2012. <i>Americans with Disabilities: 2010.</i> Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, <span class="nobr">P70-131.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Government Printing Office (July). <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2012/demo/p70-131.html">http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p70-131.pdf</a>.</p>
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|
<p>Bridges, Benjamin, and Sharmila Choudhury. 2009. “Examining Social Security Benefits as a Retirement Resource for Near-Retirees, by Race and Ethnicity, Nativity, and Disability Status.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 69(1): <span class="nobr">19–44.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v69n1/v69n1p19.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v69n1/v69n1p19.html</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>Burkhauser, Richard V., T. Lynn Fisher, Andrew J. Houtenville, and Jennifer R. Tennant. 2012. “Using the 2009 <abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>-<abbr class="spell">ASEC</abbr>-<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Matched Dataset to Show Who Is and Is Not Captured in the Official Six-Question Sequence on Disability.” Paper presented at the 14<sup>th</sup> Annual Joint Conference of the Retirement Research Consortium, Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr> (August <span class="nobr">2–3).</span></p>
|
|
<p>Census Bureau. 2010. “Analysis of Perturbed and Unperturbed Age Estimates: 2008.” Current Population Survey User Note. </p>
|
|
<p>———. n.d. a. “American Community Survey (<abbr class="spell">ACS</abbr>).” <a href="https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/">http://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/</a>.</p>
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<p>———. n.d. b. “Current Population Survey (<abbr class="spell">CPS</abbr>).” <a href="https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps.html">http://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps.html</a>.</p>
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|
<p>———. n.d. c. “Survey of Income and Program Participation.” <a href="https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/sipp.html">http://www.census.gov/sipp/</a>.</p>
|
|
<p>Choudhury, Sharmila. 2001/2002. “Racial and Ethnic Differences in Wealth and Asset Choices.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 64(4): <span class="nobr">1–15.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v64n4/v64n4p1.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v64n4/v64n4p1.html</a>.</p>
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|
<p>———. 2002. “Racial and Ethnic Differences in Wealth Holdings and Portfolio Choices.” <abbr class="spell">ORES</abbr> Working Paper Series <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 95. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Social Security Administration, Office of Policy, Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics (April). <a href="/policy/docs/workingpapers/wp95.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/workingpapers/wp95.html</a>.</p>
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|
<p>Cronin, Michael A. 1985. “Fifty Years of Operations in the Social Security Administration.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 48(6): <span class="nobr">14–26.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v48n6/v48n6p14.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v48n6/v48n6p14.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Davies, Paul S., and T. Lynn Fisher. 2009. “Measurement Issues Associated with Using Survey Data Matched with Administrative Data from the Social Security Administration.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 69(2): <span class="nobr">1–12.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v69n2/v69n2p1.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v69n2/v69n2p1.html</a>.</p>
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<p>DeCesaro, Anne, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. 2008. “Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized <abbr class="spell">DI</abbr> and <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Program Participants.” Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2008-02.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2008-02.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2008-02.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Dushi, Irena, and Marjorie Honig. 2007. “Are <span class="nobr">401(k)</span> Savings Rates Changing? Cohort/Period Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study.” <abbr class="spell">MRRC</abbr> Working Paper <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <abbr class="spell">WP</abbr> <span class="nobr">2007-160.</span> Ann Arbor, <abbr title="Michigan">MI</abbr>: University of Michigan Retirement Research Center. <a href="https://mrdrc.isr.umich.edu/publications/papers/pdf/wp160.pdf">http://www.mrrc.isr.umich.edu/publications/papers/pdf/wp160.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2008. “How Much Do Respondents in the Health and Retirement Study Know About Their Tax-deferred Contribution Plans? A Cross-cohort Comparison.” <abbr class="spell">MRRC</abbr> Working Paper <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <abbr class="spell">WP</abbr> <span class="nobr">2008-201.</span> Ann Arbor, <abbr title="Michigan">MI</abbr>: University of Michigan Retirement Research Center. <a href="http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/64473/wp201.pdf?sequence=1.">http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/64473/wp201.pdf?sequence=1.</a></p>
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<p>Dushi, Irena, and Howard M. Iams. 2008. “Cohort Differences in Wealth and Pension Participation of Near-Retirees.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 68(3): <span class="nobr">45–66.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v68n3/v68n3p45.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v68n3/v68n3p45.html</a>.</p>
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<p>El Nasser, Haya. 2013. “Census Rethinks Hispanic on Questionnaire.” <i><abbr class="spell">USA</abbr> Today</i> (January 4). <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/01/03/hispanics-may-be-added-to-census-race-category/1808087/">http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/01/03/hispanics-may-be-added-to-census-race-category/1808087/</a>.</p>
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<p>Fisher, T. Lynn. 2005. “Measurement of Reliance on Social Security Benefits.” Paper presented at the Federal Committee on Statistical Methodology Research Conference, Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr> (November 15).</p>
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<p>———. 2007. “The Impact of Survey Choice on Measuring the Relative Importance of Social Security Benefits to the Elderly.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 67(2): <span class="nobr">55–64.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v67n2/v67n2p55.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v67n2/v67n2p55.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Gesumaria, Robert V., and David A. Weaver. 2001. “Military Veterans and Social Security.” Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2001-01.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2001-01.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2001-01.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Gottschalk, Peter, and Minh Huynh. 2005. “Validation Study of Earnings Data in the <abbr>SIPP</abbr>—Do Older Workers Have Larger Measurement Error?” <abbr class="spell">CRR</abbr> Working Paper No. <span class="nobr">2005-07.</span> Chestnut Hill, <abbr title="Massachusetts">MA</abbr>: Center for Retirement Research at Boston College.</p>
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<p>Gustman, Alan L., and Thomas L. Steinmeier. 2000. “Retirement Outcomes in the Health and Retirement Study.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 63(4): <span class="nobr">57–71.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v63n4/v63n4p57.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v63n4/v63n4p57.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Haines, Dawn E., and Brian V. Greenberg. 2005. “Statistical Uses of Social Security Administrative Data.” Paper presented at the American Statistical Association Joint Statistical Meetings, Minneapolis, <abbr title="Minnesota">MN</abbr> (August <span class="nobr">7–11).</span> http://www.oecd.org/std/36237686.pdf.</p>
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<p>Hemmeter, Jeffrey. 2009. “Occupations of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Recipients Who Work.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> (69)3: <span class="nobr">47–75.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v69n3/v69n3p47.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v69n3/v69n3p47.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Hendley, Alexa A., and Natasha F. Bilimoria. 1999. “Minorities and Social Security: An Analysis of Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Current Program.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 62(2): <span class="nobr">59–64.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v62n2/v62n2p59.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v62n2/v62n2p59.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Humes, Karen, Nicholas A. Jones, and Roberto R. Ramirez. 2011. “Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010.” 2010 Census Brief <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">C2010<abbr class="spell">BR</abbr>-02.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Census Bureau. <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2011/dec/c2010br-02.html">http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Huynh, Minh, Kalman Rupp, and James Sears. 2002. “The Assessment of Survey of Income and Program Participation (<abbr>SIPP</abbr>) Benefit Data Using Longitudinal Administrative Records.” <abbr>SIPP</abbr> Working Paper No. 238. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/sipp/workpapr/wp238.pdf.</p>
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<p>Iams, Howard M., and Patrick J. Purcell. 2013. “Social Security Income Measurement in Two Surveys.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 73(3): <span class="nobr">1–10.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v73n3/v73n3p1.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v73n3/v73n3p1.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Iams, Howard M., and Christopher R. Tamborini. 2012. “The Implications of Marital History Change on Women's Eligibility for Social Security Wife and Widow Benefits, <span class="nobr">1990–2009.</span>” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 72(2): <span class="nobr">23–28.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v72n2/v72n2p23.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v72n2/v72n2p23.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Koenig, Melissa. 2003. “An Assessment of the Current Population Survey and the Survey of Income and Program Participation Using Social Security Administrative Data.” Paper presented at the Federal Committee on Statistical Methodology Research Conference, Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr> (November 18).</p>
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<p>Krogstad, Jens Manuel, and D'Vera Cohn. 2014. “<abbr>U.S.</abbr> Census Looking at Big Changes in How it Asks About Race and Ethnicity.” <i>Pew Research Center FactTank</i> (March 14). <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2014/03/14/u-s-census-looking-at-big-changes-in-how-it-asks-about-race-and-ethnicity/">http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/03/14/u-s-census-looking-at-big-changes-in-how-it-asks-about-race-and-ethnicity/</a>.</p>
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<p>Leonesio, Michael V., Benjamin Bridges, Robert Gesumaria, and Linda Del Bene. 2012. “The Increasing Labor Force Participation of Older Workers and its Effect on the Income of the Aged.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 72(1): <span class="nobr">59–77.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v72n1/v72n1p59.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v72n1/v72n1p59.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Lingg, Barbara A. 1978. “Beneficiaries Affected by the Annual Earnings Test in 1975.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 41(12): <span class="nobr">12–24.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v41n12/v41n12p12.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v41n12/v41n12p12.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 1980. “Beneficiaries Affected by the Annual Earnings Test in 1977.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 43(12): <span class="nobr">3–15.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v43n12/v43n12p3.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v43n12/v43n12p3.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 1983. “Beneficiaries Affected by the Annual Earnings Test in 1978.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 46(4): <span class="nobr">23–34.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v46n4/v46n4p23.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v46n4/v46n4p23.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 1984. “Beneficiaries Affected by the Annual Earnings Test in 1980.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 47(11): <span class="nobr">16–33.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v47n11/v47n11p16.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v47n11/v47n11p16.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 1986. “Beneficiaries Affected by the Annual Earnings Test in 1982.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 49(5): <span class="nobr">25–32.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v49n5/v49n5p25.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v49n5/v49n5p25.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Macartney, Suzanne, Alemayehu Bishaw, and Kayla Fontenot. 2013. “Poverty Rates for Selected Detailed Race and Hispanic Groups by State and Place: <span class="nobr">2007–2011.</span>” American Community Survey Briefs, <abbr class="spell">ACSBR</abbr>/<span class="nobr">11-17.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acsbr11-17.pdf.</p>
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<p>Martin, Patricia P. 2007. “Hispanics, Social Security, and Supplemental Security Income.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 67(2): <span class="nobr">73–100.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v67n2/v67n2p73.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v67n2/v67n2p73.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Martin, Patricia P., and John L. Murphy, 2014<i>.</i> “African Americans: Description of Social Security and Supplemental Security Income Participation and Benefit Levels Using the American Community Survey.” Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2014-01.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2014-01.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2014-01.html</a>.</p>
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<p>McNabb, Jennifer, David Timmons, Jae G. Song, and Carolyn Puckett. 2009. “Uses of Administrative Data at the Social Security Administration.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 69(1): <span class="nobr">75–84.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v69n1/v69n1p75.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v69n1/v69n1p75.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Murphy, John L., Alicia Gourd, and Faith Begay. 2014. “Financial Literacy Among American Indians and Alaska Natives.” Research and Statistics Note <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">2014-04.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2014-04.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2014-04.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Neumark, David, and Elizabeth T. Powers. 2005. “The Effect of the <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Program on Labor Supply: Improved Evidence from Social Security Administrative Files.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 65(3): <span class="nobr">45–60.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v65n3/v65n3p45.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v65n3/v65n3p45.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Nicholas, Joyce, and Michael Wiseman. 2009. “Elderly Poverty and Supplemental Security Income.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 69(1): <span class="nobr">45–73.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v69n1/v69n1p45.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v69n1/v69n1p45.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Olsen, Anya. 2005/2006. “Military Veterans and Social Security.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 66(2): <span class="nobr">1–6.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v66n2/v66n2p1.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v66n2/v66n2p1.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Olsen, Anya, and Samantha O'Leary. 2011. “Military Veterans and Social Security: 2010 Update.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 71(2): <span class="nobr">1–15.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v71n2/v71n2p1.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v71n2/v71n2p1.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Olson, Janice A. 1999. “Linkages With Data From Social Security Administrative Records in the Health and Retirement Study.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 62(2): <span class="nobr">73–85.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v62n2/v62n2p73.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v62n2/v62n2p73.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2002. “Social Security Benefit Reporting in the Survey of Income and Program Participation and in Social Security Administrative Records.” <abbr class="spell">ORES</abbr> Working Paper Series <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 96. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Social Security Administration, Office of Policy, Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics (June). <a href="/policy/docs/workingpapers/wp96.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/workingpapers/wp96.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Puckett, Carolyn. 2009. “The Story of the Social Security Number.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 69(2): <span class="nobr">55–74.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v69n2/v69n2p55.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v69n2/v69n2p55.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Purcell, Patrick J. 2012. “Income Replacement Ratios in the Health and Retirement Study.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 72(3): <span class="nobr">37–58.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v72n3/v72n3p37.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v72n3/v72n3p37.html</a>.</p>
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<p>Ríos, Merarys, Fabián Romero, and Roberto Ramírez. 2014. “Race Reporting Among Hispanics: 2010.” Population Division Working Paper <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 102. Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: Census Bureau, Population Division. http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0102/twps0102.pdf.</p>
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<p>Scherr, Marvin G., and William J. Nelson, <abbr title="Junior">Jr.</abbr> 1980. “Collection and Analysis of Data on Race and Ethnicity Questions in Social Security Number Applications.” In <i>Proceedings of the Survey Research Methods Section, American Statistical Association (1980),</i> <span class="nobr">353–357.</span> Alexandria, <abbr class="spell">VA</abbr>: American Statistical Association. http://www.amstat.org/sections/srms/Proceedings/y1980f.html.</p>
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<p>Scott, Charles G. 1999. “Identifying the Race or Ethnicity of <abbr class="spell">SSI</abbr> Recipients.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 62(4): <span class="nobr">9–20.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v62n4/v62n4p9.pdf">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v62n4/v62n4p9.pdf</a>.</p>
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<p>Sears, James, and Kalman Rupp. 2003. “Exploring Social Security Payment History Matched with the Survey of Income and Program Participation.” Paper presented at the Federal Committee on Statistical Methodology Research Conference, Arlington, <abbr class="spell">VA</abbr> (November <span class="nobr">17–19).</span> http://fcsm.sites.usa.gov/files/2014/05/2003FCSM_SearsRupp.pdf.</p>
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<p>Smith-Kaprosy, Nolan, Patricia P. Martin, and Kevin Whitman. 2012. “An Overview of American Indians and Alaska Natives in the Context of Social Security and Supplemental Security Income.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 72(4): <span class="nobr">1–10.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v72n4/v72n4p1.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v72n4/v72n4p1.html</a>.</p>
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<p>[<abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>] Social Security Administration. 2014. <i>Income of the Population 55 or Older, 2012</i>. <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Publication <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> <span class="nobr">13-11871.</span> Washington, <abbr class="spell">DC</abbr>: <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr>. <a href="/policy/docs/statcomps/income_pop55/2012/index.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/income_pop55/2012/index.html</a>.</p>
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<p>———. 2015a. “Enumeration at Birth (<abbr class="spell">EAB</abbr>).” <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Office of Legislation and Congressional Affairs. Internal document.</p>
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<p>———. 2015b. “Enumeration at Entry (<abbr class="spell">EAE</abbr>).” <abbr class="spell">SSA</abbr> Office of Legislation and Congressional Affairs. Internal document.</p>
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<p>Tamborini, Christopher R., Howard M. Iams, and Kevin Whitman. 2009. “Marital History, Race, and Social Security Spouse and Widow Benefit Eligibility in the United States.” <i>Research on Aging</i> 31(5): <span class="nobr">577–605.</span></p>
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<p>Tamborini, Christopher R., Emily Cupito, and Dave Shoffner. 2011. “A Profile of Social Security Child Beneficiaries and their Families: Sociodemographic and Economic Characteristics.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 71 (1):<span class="nobr">1–15.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v71n1/v71n1p1.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v71n1/v71n1p1.html</a>.</p>
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<p>University of Michigan. 2015. “Health and Retirement Study: A Longitudinal Study of Health, Retirement, and Aging.” <a href="https://hrs.isr.umich.edu/">http://hrsonline.isr.umich.edu/index.php</a>.</p>
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<p>Weaver, David A. 2010. “Widows and Social Security.” <i>Social Security Bulletin</i> 70(3): <span class="nobr">89–109.</span> <a href="/policy/docs/ssb/v70n3/v70n3p89.html">https://www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v70n3/v70n3p89.html</a>.</p>
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