nist-gov/www.nist.gov/blogs/taking-measure/nist-radioactivity-measurements-get-ball-rolling-new-cancer-therapies
2025-03-05 18:59:57 +00:00

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<h1 class="nist-page__title">NIST Radioactivity Measurements Get the Ball Rolling for New Cancer Therapies</h1>
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<div class="daterange"><time datetime="2021-02-18T12:00:00Z">February 18, 2021</time>
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<span>By: </span>
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<figure class="nist-image--lightbox nist-image" data-lightbox="https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/2800_x_2800_limit/public/images/2021/02/16/Bergeron%20l-shield.jpg?itok=3IZu0pHA" data-media-id="601916">
<img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/960_x_960_limit/public/images/2021/02/16/Bergeron%20l-shield.jpg?itok=GJSlCg8T" width="960" height="600" alt="Denis Bergeron working behind an L-shield with a syringe containing a radiopharmaceutical." title="Bergeron l-shield" typeof="foaf:Image" />
<figcaption class="nist-image__caption">
<div data-caption-editable="true" class="nist-image__caption-content">
<p><em>Working behind an L-shield with a syringe containing a radiopharmaceutical.</em></p>
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<div class="nist-image__credit">
<span class="nist-image__credit-label">Credit:</span>
M. Mille
</div>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From the earliest days of radioactivity research, radiation and cancer therapy have gone together like peas and carrots. But <a href="/blogs/taking-measure/minding-your-peas-and-carrots-please-try-home" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="37adb37f-cb18-4ed1-bb81-f67a80f9e91e" data-entity-substitution="canonical" title="Minding your Peas and Carrots: Please Try This at Home">Zach Levine covered peas and carrots in an earlier blog post</a>, so I will focus on radiation and cancer therapy.</p><p>Shortly after <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a> discovered the high-energy electromagnetic radiation he called “X-rays” in 1895, their cell-killing power was recognized and harnessed to treat cancer. Similarly, within a few years of the Curies discovery of the radioactive element radium, doctors were deploying the energetic particles it emitted to treat skin cancers. By the 1910s, more powerful X-ray tubes were producing beams that could penetrate deeper into the body to treat all sorts of tumors. This “external beam therapy” was on its way to becoming the standard for radiotherapy, largely supplanting radium-based therapies.</p><p>Today, with creative chemistry, radium isotopes (along with radioactive isotopes of other atoms) are making a comeback. Modern external beam approaches are pretty good at limiting damage to healthy neighboring tissue, but its a struggle. Emerging alternative therapies use the heaviest of the particles emitted by radioactive isotopes, called alpha particles, which deliver lethal amounts of energy to precisely targeted tissue over very short ranges.</p><p>Before diving too deep into how “alpha therapy” works, I should probably step back to define “alpha particle.” Its not something most people — even most scientists — think about regularly. In fact, I vividly recall a feeling of panic in 2008 when, on my way to my new office in the Radiation Physics Building at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), I realized I wasnt 100% confident I correctly remembered which were the alphas, the betas and the gammas! Which were the big ones? How did I get here?</p><p>The answer to that last question was “bowling,” by the way. You see, I came to NIST in 2006 as a <a href="/iaao/academic-affairs-office/postdoctoral-students-nrc-postdocs" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="eac2a2fb-45be-4202-9df2-8094fd1c45a2" data-entity-substitution="canonical" title="Postdoctoral Students (NRC Postdocs)">National Research Council (NRC) fellow</a> to study how gold nanoparticles form. I joined the NIST bowling league within a week of arriving, while my wife and I were still living in a hotel room. As my fellowship was ending two years later, I was in the thick of a job hunt, and I was still bowling. So was (now retired) Radioactivity Group leader <a href="/people/michael-p-unterweger" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="aab29078-5489-49ce-a1c1-1323c56eb4cb" data-entity-substitution="canonical" title="Michael P. Unterweger">Mike Unterweger</a>, who asked me, “Are you afraid of radioactivity?” I answered “No … ,” sent Mike my CV, and soon found myself intrigued by an opportunity to dive into a totally new (to me) field.</p>
<figure class=" align-right nist-image--lightbox nist-image" role="group">
<div data-lightbox="https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/2800_x_2800_limit/public/images/2021/02/16/Lucy%20Bergeron.jpg?itok=UVeUMLHV" data-media-id="601921">
<img alt="Lucy Bergeron about to bowl" height="480" loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/480_x_480_limit/public/images/2021/02/16/Lucy%20Bergeron.jpg?itok=QSfVd-GJ" title="Lucy Bergeron about to bowl" typeof="foaf:Image" width="360">
</div>
<figcaption class="nist-image__caption">Lucy Bergeron, rocking the 6-pound ball at her 6th birthday party. It hit some pins and a couple fell down.<div class="nist-image__credit">
<span class="nist-image__credit-label">Credit:</span>
D. Bergeron/NIST
</div></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By this time, youre thinking Ive digressed, gone off the rails, and theres no coming back. But wait! Ill use bowling to help illustrate an important concept. Its called “linear energy transfer,” and it matters a lot in targeted radiotherapy. Until a few years ago, radioactive drugs used in cancer therapy (“therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals,” usually molecules or particles tagged with a radioactive payload and designed to target cancer in different areas of the body) were mostly based on beta emitters. Beta particles are high-energy electrons given off when a neutron in an atomic nucleus decays into a proton. In cancer therapy, a beta particle bounces around in tissue, losing energy as it scatters. It will typically travel a centimeter or so before losing all its energy. Along the way, chemical bonds are broken, meaning some cells can be killed. Lets picture a 6-pound bowling ball rattling around as it knocks down a few pins. Cute.</p><p>But what if you can put a 16-pound ball right in the pocket? (Strike!!) Thats targeted alpha therapy. Instead of a lightweight electron, an alpha particle is a highly charged helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons), about 8,000 times as massive and delivering all its considerable kinetic energy over a few micrometers. An alpha particle will utterly destroy everything in its short path. Thats high linear energy transfer.</p>
<figure class=" align-right nist-image--lightbox nist-image" role="group">
<div data-lightbox="https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/2800_x_2800_limit/public/images/2021/02/16/Unterweger%20retirement.jpg?itok=Nk05nHA7" data-media-id="601926">
<img alt="Group of people at the Harry S. Truman Bowling Alley" height="360" loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/480_x_480_limit/public/images/2021/02/16/Unterweger%20retirement.jpg?itok=fGx0hPCT" title="Unterweger retirement at Harry S. Truman Bowling Alley" typeof="foaf:Image" width="480">
</div>
<figcaption class="nist-image__caption">Heres me (second from left) delivering a lecture on linear energy transfer to fellow NIST scientists at the White Houses Truman Bowling Alley. We celebrated Mike Unterwegers retirement with a memorable outing.<div class="nist-image__credit">
<span class="nist-image__credit-label">Credit:</span>
M. Unterweger
</div></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Smart chemists have been figuring out ways to deliver alpha-particle-emitting radiopharmaceuticals directly to the cells they wish to kill. If everything goes to plan, this approach means killing all the tumor cells without causing any damage to neighboring healthy tissue. This is a step toward the dream of side-effect-free cancer therapy.</p><p>Where does NIST come in? To administer an optimal therapeutic dose, you need to establish a dose-response relationship. While we leave the “response” part to our colleagues in the clinic, the “dose” part comes back to us. And while “dose” is defined in terms of absorbed energy per kilogram (measured in <a href="https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/gray-gy.html">grays</a>), the amount of dose-delivering radioactivity administered to a patient is measured in <a href="https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/becquerel-bq.html">becquerels</a>.</p><p>The becquerel is the SI unit for activity, defined as the number of decays of a particular radionuclide per second. Every radionuclide disintegrates via its own unique decay scheme, meaning that every radionuclide effectively has its own becquerel. And, of course, since our radioactive samples are always decaying away (i.e., theyre radioactive), a measurement of the becquerel is only meaningful when its accompanied by a reference time. Along with the activity of my sample right now, I have to tell you what I mean by “right now” and I have to tell you the half-life (the amount of time it takes for half of the atoms to decay) of the particular radionuclide in my sample. Only then can you figure out what activity to expect of my sample when it matters to you. The becquerel is a tricky, ethereal beast. Its our job at NIST to define that beast as precisely as possible to support all sorts of applications, including therapeutic nuclear medicine.</p>
<figure class=" align-right nist-image--lightbox nist-image" role="group">
<div data-lightbox="https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/2800_x_2800_limit/public/images/2021/02/16/radium-224.jpg?itok=IYXIcwTF" data-media-id="601941">
<img alt="a pair of translucent gloved hands hold a small vial containing radium-224 adsorbed on calcium carbonate microparticles. " height="480" loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/480_x_480_limit/public/images/2021/02/16/radium-224.jpg?itok=UBc6Fjri" title="radium 224" typeof="foaf:Image" width="360">
</div>
<figcaption class="nist-image__caption">NIST recently developed activity measurement standards for radium-224 adsorbed on calcium carbonate microparticles. A similar formulation is being developed for the targeted treatment of cavitary micrometastases.<div class="nist-image__credit">
<span class="nist-image__credit-label">Credit:</span>
D. Bergeron/NIST
</div></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As I said, alphas deliver their energy over a very short range, making them “easy” to measure with certain techniques. But dont worry! Theres enough physics and chemistry here to really keep us on our toes. Some of our biggest challenges come from the complex decay chains were encountering. Alpha-emitting isotopes such as radium-223, radium-224 and actinium-211 dont just spit out an alpha particle and become stable. They decay into atoms that then decay into other atoms that then … you get the idea. They stay radioactive. We have to account for all of the radionuclides in a series of decays in order to measure the activity of the first one. And we do. Using a scheme referred to as the “Bateman equation,” we predict the relative activities of every member in a decay chain (often called the “parent” and its “progeny”) at any given time. With that, and good knowledge of the characteristic radiation of all the progeny, we can make very precise activity measurements.</p><p>Increasingly, NIST is asked to set the standards that will support clinical activity measurements for alpha-emitters. Our measurements will power a new age of precision medicine, making sure that just the right amount of radiation gets just where it needs to be to kill every cancer cell.</p><p>A few years back, at a meeting of the Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, I sat in on a patient education session that focused on a drug product our group at NIST had worked on. During the Q&amp;A part of the session, a couple of cancer survivors shared their stories, explaining how joining a particular clinical trial had radically changed their lives. I work in a lab, trying to figure out how to solve measurement problems, thinking about some chemistry and some nuclear physics — I had never really given much thought to the individuals on the other end. A year ago, theyd suffered crippling pain and a hopeless prognosis. But here they were, alive and traveling across the country to share their stories at this meeting. The impact NIST measurements can have on peoples lives is … striking.</p>
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<a href="/blogs/taking-measure/categories/248321">Bioscience</a>,
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<div class="entity-reference"> <a href="/blogs/taking-measure/authors/denis-bergeron-0" hreflang="en"><img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/images/2021/02/05/Denis%20Bergeron.jpg?itok=j6G5gq-1" width="100" height="100" alt="Denis Bergeron" typeof="foaf:Image" />
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<h3 class="nist-teaser__title"><a href="/blogs/taking-measure/authors/denis-bergeron-0"><span>Denis Bergeron</span>
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<div class="text-with-summary"><p><span><span><span>Denis </span></span></span><span><span><span>Bergeron <span>received a B.S. in chemistry from Loyola University New Orleans and a Ph.D. in physical chemistry from the Pennsylvania State University. Following a postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Nottingham, he came to NIST as a National Research Council (NRC) Fellow in 2006 and joined the Radioactivity Group as a research chemist in 2008. His two daughters think a bowling analogy for targeted alpha therapy seems like a stretch.</span></span></span></span></p></div>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Sharlene</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 18, 2021 11:52 AM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thank you for your work! Hoping my radiation therapy will be done before your research is complete, but really hoping that if I should have a recurrence in the future your work will be done and ready to go! It is so encouraging to know that there are scientists working on this area of treatment. There are so many of us that have needed it!</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Denis Bergeron</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 18, 2021 2:15 PM</span>
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<span class="nist-comment__parent">| Replied to <a href="/comment/98366#comment-98366" class="permalink" rel="bookmark" hreflang="en">Thank you for your work! …</a></span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thanks for writing, Sharlene, and best wishes for success with your therapy.</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">John</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 18, 2021 2:51 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thank you sincerely for your dedication and work. I have just been diagnosed with angiosarcoma, a more cellular rather then a tumor cancer. Your research sounds promising towards a novel treatment of this rare cancer. I&#039;m hopefully your success will lead to procedures that can save lives.</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">John</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 18, 2021 3:02 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thankyou, seriously, for your dedication and work. I have been diagnosed recently with angiosarcoma, a more cellular rather then tumor cancer. Your research looks promising in developing protocol and procedures in treating this type of cancer. Hopefully your research will someday provide hope to people experiencing this type of aggressive and terminal cancer. Keep up the dedication.</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Denis Bergeron</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 18, 2021 3:16 PM</span>
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<span class="nist-comment__parent">| Replied to <a href="/comment/98381#comment-98381" class="permalink" rel="bookmark" hreflang="en">Thankyou, seriously, for…</a></span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thanks, John. I can only share your hope that molecular targeting will lead to effective therapies for this type of cancer.</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Ray Razavi</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 19, 2021 10:54 AM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thank you for your hard work, Denis! Brilliant scientists like you are the future of our country. Please know that we appreciate your hard work and dedication for making a better world for us!</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Richard Mckeever</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 19, 2021 10:54 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thanks!</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Denise F</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">December 17, 2021 1:30 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>I did not directly benefit from your research, and I pray I don&#039;t have to, but your work will help many people immeasurably. Because of dedicated people just like yourself, that saw me through a battle with breast cancer, I was able to see my son graduate middle school and high school. He was able to have his mom hug him each time and everyday ever since. We thank you, immeasurably!</p>
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