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|
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|
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|
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<p class="nist-print-header__url">https://www.nist.gov/blogs/taking-measure/5-concepts-can-help-you-understand-quantum-mechanics-and-technology-without</p>
|
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<img class="nist-print-header__logo" width="289" height="38" src="/libraries/nist-component-library/dist/img/logo/nist_logo_sidestack.svg" alt="National Institute of Standards and Technology" />
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accept-charset="UTF-8"
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method="get">
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<a href="/ctl" class="usa-nav__link">Communications Technology Laboratory</a>
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<a href="/el" class="usa-nav__link">Engineering Laboratory</a>
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<a href="/itl" class="usa-nav__link">Information Technology Laboratory</a>
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<a href="/mml" class="usa-nav__link">Material Measurement Laboratory</a>
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<a href="/pml" class="usa-nav__link">Physical Measurement Laboratory</a>
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<a href="/ncnr" class="usa-nav__link">NIST Center for Neutron Research</a>
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<a href="/cnst" class="usa-nav__link">CNST NanoFab</a>
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<a href="/chips" class="usa-nav__link">CHIPS for America Initiative</a>
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<a href="/oam" class="usa-nav__link">Office of Advanced Manufacturing</a>
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<a href="/tpo" class="usa-nav__link">Technology Partnerships Office</a>
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<h1 class="nist-page__title">5 Concepts Can Help You Understand Quantum Mechanics and Technology — Without Math!</h1>
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<div class="daterange"><time datetime="2025-02-05T12:00:00Z">February 5, 2025</time>
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<span>By: </span>
|
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<a href="/blogs/taking-measure/authors/tara-fortier" hreflang="en">Tara Fortier</a>
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<div class="nist-image--lightbox nist-image" data-lightbox="https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/2800_x_2800_limit/public/images/2025/01/28/IYofQ25_BlogHeader_TestB.gif?itok=ZfgHMoUW" data-media-id="730846">
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R. Wilson/NIST
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<p>If you’ve heard or read about quantum mechanics, you may have seen it described as “weird.” Even the great Albert Einstein — one of the founders of quantum mechanics — called certain aspects of the theory “spooky.”</p><p class="pf0"><span>With its wave-like particles and particle-like waves, quantum mechanics certainly challenges our intuitions of how the world works. Accepting what is counterintuitive to us — while striving to learn more — is a very important part of science! </span></p><p>Quantum can seem intimidating because it deals with the granular and fuzzy nature of the universe and the physical behavior of its tiniest particles that we cannot see with our eyes. Just because we haven’t experienced the world of quantum the way we can see the effects of gravity doesn’t mean quantum has to be “weird” or “spooky.” <span> </span></p><p>The founders of quantum mechanics may have thought it was “weird” because it was <em>different</em> from the physics <a href="/news-events/news/2015/11/nist-team-proves-spooky-action-distance-really-real" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="55a586f3-b8ea-4428-8f5a-7ff19517983a" data-entity-substitution="canonical" title="NIST Team Proves 'Spooky Action at a Distance' is Really Real">they were used to</a>. But that was more than 100 years ago. Quantum just is the way it is! </p><p>I’m passionate about flipping the script on quantum and making it accessible to all. </p><p>In this blog post, I will attempt to normalize quantum mechanics by drawing analogies to concepts you may already know and understand.</p><p>I will also try to explain the five things that I have noticed confuse people about quantum mechanics. (Don’t worry; no math will be required!) You probably don’t need to understand quantum mechanics in depth, but I hope this will help you think about it and how it applies to your life. </p><div class="nist-callout"><h2><span><strong>Quantum in action</strong></span></h2><p><span>Before the early 2000s, computers did not exhibit quantum behavior. But as technology advanced and transistors in computers got smaller (now as small as 5 nanometers, which is 5 billionths of a meter!), they started to show quantum behavior. Quantum behavior limits how small transistors can be and how fast computers can compute because it makes transistors “pesky” in that they don’t exhibit the predictable behavior that engineers want. For this reason, computers now operate on multiple “cores” to help increase computing speed and power.</span></p></div><h2>The Wonderful World of Quantum</h2><p>When you zoom in on matter at the quantum scale, nature gets granular. At this scale, we find tiny particles such as: </p><ul type="disc"><li><a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsphotons">Photons</a>: particles of light that have no mass or charge.</li><li><a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainselectrons">Electrons</a>: subatomic particles that make up the atom, carry electricity and have charge and mass. </li><li><a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsquarks-and-gluons">Quarks</a>: the building blocks of protons and neutrons. </li></ul><p>Alternatively, you can think of matter like a digital image: If you zoom in enough on an image, you start to see it’s made of individual pixels. </p><p>Classical physics governs the movement of things we can see, such as baseballs and planets. Quantum physics is a world we can’t easily see. If any part of quantum is substantially different from classical physics, it is that physics at the quantum scale is not only granular but also “fuzzy.” </p><p>When we zoom in on an image, a pixel seems to have a well-defined boundary, or does it? If you were able to zoom in on the atoms and subatomic particles that make up the pixel, you would see that the subatomic particles aren’t well defined. Their boundaries and behavior are somewhat unclear. This is similar to drawing a “perfect” line with a pencil and ruler. If you
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<div data-lightbox="https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/2800_x_2800_limit/public/images/2019/12/04/superposition.gif?itok=IPjh4Ed_" data-media-id="445356">
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<img alt="animated gif showing superposition by using skateboarders." height="818" loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/images/2019/12/04/superposition.gif" typeof="foaf:Image" width="1440">
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<figcaption class="nist-image__caption">In the quantum world, particles can exist in multiple states at once. <div class="nist-image__credit">
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<span class="nist-image__credit-label">Credit:</span>
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N. Hanacek/NIST
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<div class="nist-callout"><h2><span><strong>Superposition in action</strong></span></h2><p><span>Superposition is extremely useful in quantum technologies. For instance, superposition is used to make atoms oscillate in </span><a href="/atomic-clocks/how-do-atomic-clocks-work" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="fb5e20e8-71f8-4394-a673-3b1ce8980a2c" data-entity-substitution="canonical" title="How Do Atomic Clocks Work?"><span>atomic clocks</span></a><span>. It’s also important to note that physicists have quite a bit of control over superposition in well-controlled systems like atomic clocks. Physicists can control the atom to be in one electronic state or another. Or they can create a superposition of both states. </span></p><p><span>You can imagine superposition as being similar to a pendulum swinging between positions (one at the far left and one at the far right). When oscillating, the pendulum is at neither position but oscillating from one position to the other. The “swinging” back and forth between the platforms is the oscillation that forms </span><a href="/blogs/taking-measure/think-you-know-what-second-it-will-likely-change-next-decade" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="37772e40-6ab9-411e-8016-a4d73a3e0416" data-entity-substitution="canonical" title="Think You Know What a Second Is? It Will Likely Change in the Next Decade."><span>the clock signal</span></a><span>, just like the oscillation of a pendulum, just way faster! </span></p></div><h3><a class="ck-anchor" id="uncertainty"></a>Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle in Measurement </h3><p>The notion of uncertainty exists for measurements of all physical systems but becomes really apparent at the quantum scale.</p><p>When you try to measure the state of any system, you inevitably disturb it at some level. Why? Because to observe it, you typically need to interact with it using some type of probe. </p><p>For instance, we use photons bouncing off objects to see them with our eyes, a form of measurement that allows us to judge an object’s position, movement and size. The light bouncing off a skyscraper doesn’t have large enough energy to significantly disturb the skyscraper. But if the skyscraper were as small as an electron, the energy could become comparable enough to the skyscraper’s to significantly disturb its state.</p><p>This is part of the essence of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which says that the act of measurement disturbs the quantum state of the object. As a result, there are limits to how precisely certain pairs of properties, like position and momentum and time and energy, can be known simultaneously. </p><h3><a class="ck-anchor" id="entanglement"></a>Entanglement</h3><p>Quantum entanglement occurs when the quantum states of two or more particles become strongly correlated. This means the state of one particle can instantaneously influence the state of the other, regardless of distance. A common analogy to understand correlation is to think of two entangled photons as two coins that always land the same way when you flip them.</p>
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<img alt="illustration of entanglement showing two people on different planets who are connected" height="818" loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/images/2018/04/02/entanglement_rev.jpg" typeof="foaf:Image" width="1440">
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<figcaption class="nist-image__caption">In the quantum phenomenon known as entanglement, the properties of two particles are intertwined even if they are separated by great distances from each other.<div class="nist-image__credit">
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<span class="nist-image__credit-label">Credit:</span>
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<p>In <a href="https://www.nsa.gov/Cybersecurity/Quantum-Key-Distribution-QKD-and-Quantum-Cryptography-QC/">quantum key distribution (QKD</a>), entangled photons are used to securely exchange cryptographic keys (like in financial transactions for banks or top-secret military messages). If an eavesdropper tries to intercept the photons, the act of measuring them disturbs their quantum state, causing a detectable change in the correlation between the photons. This disturbance alerts the communicating parties to the presence of an eavesdropper, ensuring the security of the key exchange.</p><div class="nist-callout"><h2><span><strong>Entanglement in action: quantum communication and computation</strong></span></h2><p><span>Entanglement and superposition are used in many of the newer quantum technologies being developed today, such as quantum networking, quantum communication and quantum computing. Quantum bits, or qubits, that are entangled with each other have a potential “quantum advantage” that can allow them to solve some calculations much faster than classical computers and that allows exponential improvement of computing power with the number of qubits. </span></p></div><h3><a class="ck-anchor" id="spin"></a>Spin</h3><p><span>While wave-particle duality, superposition, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and entanglement are all manifestations of the fact that quantum systems have wave-like behavior, spin is off on its own. </span></p><p><span>Although deeply associated with quantum mechanics, spin is just a characteristic a particle has when it’s created, similar to mass and charge. Despite its name, the term “spin” doesn’t mean the particle is actually spinning.</span></p><p><span>The spin of electrons, neutrons and protons that make up an atom make it possible for them to form stable structures, such as the elements, planets and our bodies. Your own body and anything you interact with in the physical world exists in its current form because spin gives the particles volume! Electrons can’t occupy the same space because of their given spin. This is what gives matter volume. </span></p><p><span>Photons have a different spin than electrons, protons and neutrons, allowing them to occupy the same space. This gives photons remarkable qualities. If you have noticed, you can feel the warmth of light, and you can see it, but you can’t hold it or touch it like you can hold things made of matter like pencils, tables and pets.</span></p><div class="nist-callout"><h2>Spin in action: lasers</h2><p><span>The fact that photons can occupy the same space is responsible for the amazing utility of the laser. In lasers, all the photons can perfectly overlap with one another so that all the peaks and troughs of the light waves are perfectly aligned and added together. This allows lasers to create something like a superwave, so all the photons work together in the same space and at the same time. This allows lasers to cut metal, even if they operate with powers similar to a light bulb. </span></p></div><h2><span>Making Quantum Accessible for All </span></h2><p>I am deeply passionate about making quantum mechanics and quantum technology accessible to the public because I envision a future where the applications of these technologies reflect the diverse voices of all demographics. </p><p>The impact of quantum technology and computing will be profound. Quantum may bring us more secure communication systems, solve problems like how to design better medicines and much more. It's crucial that everyone has a role in shaping how these innovations evolve to benefit humanity and the planet.</p>
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<div class="text-with-summary"><p>Tara Fortier is a physicist and project leader in NIST’s Time and Frequency Division. She leads a research group that performs both basic and applied research in the areas of laser source development for precision optical and microwave metrology of atomic clocks and for quantum networks. Fortier is broadly involved with leadership in several scientific organizations, including NIST’s Women in STEM executive board and as a NIST representative to the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy working group on National Quantum Workforce Development, as well as being a fellow for the Optical Society of America and the American Physical Society. <span>Tara is currently on foreign detail in Sevres, France, working at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures) working as a coordinator for outreach and education in using atomic clocks for coordinated universal time.</span></p></div>
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<h3 class="nist-teaser__title"><a href="/blogs/taking-measure/high-flying-science-how-and-why-we-sent-refrigerator-halfway-space"><span>High-Flying Science: How and Why We Sent a Refrigerator Halfway to Space</span>
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<div class="daterange"><time datetime="2025-02-12T12:00:00Z">February 12, 2025</time>
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<div class="text-with-summary"> NIST-developed tools can study the remnants of the Big Bang and more, and now researchers are working to launch these tools high above the Earth’s atmosphere —
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<div class="text-with-summary"> If you’ve ever had a medical test, flown on an airplane, or needed to check the time, NIST’s work affects your life every day.
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">UCB graduate 79</span></span>
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on
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 5, 2025 3:39 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Simple yet excellent article</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Anonymous</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 5, 2025 4:33 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thank you for this. Very clear and understandable.</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Greg Skulmoski</span></span>
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on
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 5, 2025 5:40 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>As a project manager, I implement hardware and software, then integrate those technologies. By simplifying physics and quantum mechanics misses this point. Quantum technologies are to be used by end users who are not scientists. By focusing on the science, rather than on the application, adoption will be slow. My two cents. Greg Skulmoski</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">narj</span></span>
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on
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 5, 2025 8:22 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Finally an article written by someone with deep knowledge of a very complex subject because it made sense to an English as foreign language service industry type like me. Thank you.</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Promytius</span></span>
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on
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 6, 2025 10:18 AM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Isn't entanglement broken by heat? Why is this never mentioned?</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Tara Fortier (NIST)</span></span>
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on
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 6, 2025 12:31 PM</span>
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<span class="nist-comment__parent">| Replied to <a href="/comment/158156#comment-158156" class="permalink" rel="bookmark" hreflang="en">Isn't entanglement broken by…</a></span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Entanglement is a very fragile state that can be broken by many effects, heat being one of them. Heat and other effects that disturb the quantum state are limiting factors in quantum technologies including, atomic clocks and sensors, quantum computers and quantum communications.</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Greg Skulmoski</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 6, 2025 10:54 AM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>This is honestly a top 5 article of all time, thank you sigma <3</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Richard Matheny</span></span>
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on
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 7, 2025 12:39 AM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Fantastic article, digestible points easily simplifying quantum mechanics! I personally have become so fascinated with everything we are learning with each new discovery! I’m also rather intrigued about the philosophical implications as well! (how can we not be?)<br />
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Quantum mechanics challenges our views on reality, determinism, and locality.<br />
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Expanding on decoherence, probability, and applications beyond computing could enrich our understanding further. Curious about your take on these philosophical aspects!<br />
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Keep up your great work!</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Rachael </span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 8, 2025 6:58 AM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Fantastic post! Thank you so much - I now fully get it!</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">TSow</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 9, 2025 4:06 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thanks for a great article. I've always been intrigued by quantum mechanics, and this article had a great description of the phenomena in general terms, while still seeming technically accurate. </p>
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<p>A quick question. You mention an example of entanglement being disturbed by a third party observing a photon. However, whenever I've read entanglement described elsewhere, the matching states between particles (which you describe as a correlation) change to match each other instantaneously. Usually, other articles point out that this means information can travel at beyond the speed of light, which would seem to contradict relativity theory. In the example you gave, how does the state of the photon traveling relate to the state of the two entangled particles?</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Paul Hayes</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 14, 2025 5:14 AM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p><< If any part of quantum is substantially different from classical physics, it is that physics at the quantum scale is not only granular but also “fuzzy.” >></p>
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<p>Schrödinger, in his famous "cat paradox" paper, was among the first to point out that QP should not be thought of that way (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%27s_cat#Thought_experiment">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%27s_cat#Thought_experime…</a>). It's an idea from the very earliest days of QM when he and others were trying to interpret the new theory and constructed the long obsolete "semi-classical" interpretations (described in Max Jammers book). QT does point to an intrinsically probabilistic reality but that's conceptually a very different thing than a fuzzy reality and modern foundations researchers have worked hard to identify exactly where quantum physics really does differ substantially from classical physics (<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1501.03202">https://arxiv.org/abs/1501.03202</a>). </p>
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<p>Likewise, "wave-particle duality", also known as "wave-particle complementarity, is a long obsolete idea; superposition doesn't mean "ontic and"; the HUP is (firstly) about the intrinsic uncertainty in quantum systems rather than about uncertainty caused by measurement disturbance (<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1904.06139">https://arxiv.org/abs/1904.06139</a>); and other than in "hidden variable" alternative theories to QM, entanglement doesn't entail instantaneous influence (not even the non-signaling kind).</p>
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<p>Classical analogies and "semi-classical" thinking too often lead to error, to misconceptions and to misunderstanding QP rather than to understanding it but, somewhat surprisingly perhaps, advances in our knowledge of its conceptual and mathematical foundations have led to a way to explain it that's both fairly easy to understand and correct.</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="" content="Taking Measure Editor on behalf of Tara Fortier ">Taking Measure Editor on behalf of Tara Fortier </span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 18, 2025 7:36 AM</span>
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<span class="nist-comment__parent">| Replied to <a href="/comment/158306#comment-158306" class="permalink" rel="bookmark" hreflang="en"><< If any part of quantum is…</a></span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thanks for your insights! My article was written for a general audience at about a 9th-grade reading level, so the goal was to introduce key ideas in an accessible way rather than dive into technical details or modern interpretations. While I agree that classical analogies can sometimes lead to misconceptions, they also provide useful entry points for younger learners beginning to explore quantum mechanics.</p>
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<p>To your specific comments:</p>
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<p>• On “fuzziness”: I used the term fuzzy to convey the inherent uncertainty in quantum systems due to their probabilistic nature—whether in internal energy states (like spin or atomic energy levels) or external states (like position and momentum).<br />
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• On wave-particle duality: I agree that a more precise term is wave-particle complementarity. For a general audience, I frame it like this: Quantum systems always have wavelike properties—this isn’t something that switches on and off. If you zoom into an electron or photon, they aren’t just tiny hard balls; they are energy. Sometimes, modeling an electron as a particle is useful, and other times, thinking of it as a wave (a wavefunction) is more convenient. The “duality” lies in how we model the system, not in the particle itself.<br />
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• On classical analogies and semi-classical thinking: I completely agree that classical analogies can sometimes hinder understanding rather than help. I would have loved to include a deeper discussion of probability and wavefunctions! However, given the target audience, it was decided that a more technical discussion wouldn’t resonate. That said, I believe these ideas are accessible to those with a 12th-grade education and beyond—it’s just difficult to find venues willing to target that level.<br />
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• On Heisenberg uncertainty: The simplest way to clarify this is that measurement itself—by requiring interaction between a quantum state and another particle—disturbs the system’s delicate wavelike nature, adding uncertainty to the result. A practical example from atomic clock research is the ongoing effort to develop non-destructive ways to measure atomic states, improving clock precision:<br />
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R. Hobson et al., "Cavity-enhanced non-destructive detection of atoms for an optical lattice clock," Opt. Exp. 27 (2019).</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Paul Hayes</span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 18, 2025 3:31 PM</span>
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<span class="nist-comment__parent">| Replied to <a href="/comment/158386#comment-158386" class="permalink" rel="bookmark" hreflang="en">Thanks for your insights! My…</a></span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Thanks for your response! I admit I have no idea what the appropriate approach for younger audiences might be but if the concept of probability isn't beyond them then I'd suggest that they may be in the enviable position of being better prepared to absorb a thoroughly modern perspective on standard QM than someone who's already absorbed some of the obsoletisms and misconceptions that still dominate "traditional" approaches. As might a "quantum innocent" of any age. It's what my last remark was referring to: the idea that because quantum theory (the maths) is a "conceptually very straightforward generalization of classical probability theory" ( <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.3833">https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.3833</a> ) it should be possible to explain the basic ideas of QM in simple yet entirely misconception-free terms. In particular there should be no need for any misleading talk of waves or wavelike properties, much less "wave-particle complementarity"; an idea of Bohr's which he himself realised was a mistake ( <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-copenhagen/#Comp">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-copenhagen/#Comp</a> ).</p>
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Dan O'Sullivan </span></span>
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<span class="nist-comment__date">February 26, 2025 9:19 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>Terrific primer. Thank you!</p>
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