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<h1 class="nist-page__title">Making Radioactive Lung and Liver Samples for Better Human Health</h1>
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<div class="daterange"><time datetime="2019-10-29T12:00:00Z">October 29, 2019</time>
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<span>By: </span>
|
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<a href="/blogs/taking-measure/authors/kenneth-gw-inn" hreflang="en">Kenneth G.W. Inn</a>
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<figure class="nist-image--lightbox nist-image" data-lightbox="https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/2800_x_2800_limit/public/images/2019/10/25/srms_4351_lung_and_4352_liver.jpg?itok=LUULSXb5" data-media-id="559196">
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<img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/960_x_960_limit/public/images/2019/10/25/srms_4351_lung_and_4352_liver.jpg?itok=Xn4aHo13" width="960" height="600" alt="a photo of two bottles about the size of spice bottles. On one is written 4351 Human lung for 239+240 Pu measurements, and on the other is written 4352 Human liver for 239+240 Pu measurements" typeof="foaf:Image" />
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<p>SRMs 4351 and 4352. </p>
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<div class="nist-image__credit">
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<span class="nist-image__credit-label">Credit:</span>
|
|||
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|
|||
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Mark Esser/NIST
|
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</figcaption>
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<p>It was 1978, and the United States was embroiled in a Cold War. Nuclear weapons were being produced and numerous countries were carrying out atmospheric nuclear tests. Nuclear power plants were also being built and fueled. As an unintended result, people were sometimes contaminated and injured when working with radioactive materials or otherwise exposed to radioactivity. Doctors had to evaluate the extent of the contamination and predict how it would affect individuals so that they could give them proper care. Helping doctors and scientists measure and understand the effects of radiation in human tissue is where I come into this story.</p><p>Two major organizations — the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) — had models that predicted which organs in the human body would be most affected by exposure to radioactivity. The models considered how radionuclides — radioactive atoms — move around the body and estimated how long they stay in the body. In addition, the U.S. Department of Energy sponsored a voluntary registry of people who had been contaminated by radioactivity. The radioactivity levels of these volunteers were measured throughout their lifetimes to help improve and refine those models.</p><p>Many of the participants also volunteered to donate their bodies after death to be analyzed in detail to further develop and validate the models. According to those models, the lungs, liver and bone were among the tissues most affected by radionuclides, and so accurate measurements of the radioactive exposure to these tissues were of high priority.</p><p>About the time that the need for lung, liver and bone radioactivity measurements was being recognized, I had just finished getting my degree in environmental radiochemistry and was looking for a job. Luckily, I was hired to work in the radioactivity group of the National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now the National Institute of Standards and Technology or NIST). The job they hired me to do was to develop and certify large quantities of a new line of standard reference materials (SRMs) of radioactive samples of these tissues. SRMs are materials that have been extensively measured in multiple ways so that the amount of a certain constituent or constituents is known with a high level of confidence. For this project, we needed large quantities of radioactive lung, liver and bone tissue, more than a 10-year supply, because the SRMs would be used for long-term national and international environmental programs.</p><p>The lung and liver were the first human tissue types we addressed.</p><h2>Making Years' Worth of Radioactive SRMs</h2><p>To meet the demand for a long-term supply, we figured we would need 1,000 units of SRMs of about 50 grams of dry material each and containing 0.001 becquerel per gram. (A becquerel is a measure of radioactivity equal to the decay of one radioactive atomic nucleus per second.) We all have low levels of contamination within our tissues because of the global fallout from decades of nuclear tests. However, the radioactivity in the SRMs is much more highly concentrated than it is in organs that have been contaminated only by this global fallout. We decided that the only practical system for achieving this high concentration was to “spike” a large volume of each tissue type with a radioactively contaminated smaller volume of the corresponding tissue. To get the right ratio, we would need to collect 200-250 kilograms of tissue from the general population to dilute the radioactive organ tissue. This is approximately 400 individual whole human lungs and more than 150 human livers.</p><h2>Collecting and Processing Human Lungs and Livers</h2><p>We obtained the contaminated organs from the Transuranium Registry Program at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico, the birthplace of the atomic bomb. The organs came from two occupationally exposed people who had signed releases stating that their organs and exposure inform
|
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<figure class=" align-center nist-image--lightbox nist-image" role="group">
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<div data-lightbox="https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/2800_x_2800_limit/public/images/2019/10/28/contaminated_human_lung.jpg?itok=3TEbGOSn" data-media-id="559246">
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<img alt="a colorized photo of a human lung contaminated with plutonium on a work bench. Behind the lung is a food processor. " height="1799" loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/images/2019/10/28/contaminated_human_lung.jpg" typeof="foaf:Image" width="2877">
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<figcaption class="nist-image__caption">Contaminated human lungs before processing.<div class="nist-image__credit">
|
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<span class="nist-image__credit-label">Credit:</span>
|
|||
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|
|||
|
|
Ken Inn/NIST
|
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</div></figcaption>
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<div data-lightbox="https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/styles/2800_x_2800_limit/public/images/2019/10/28/contaminated_human_lung_in_v_blender.jpg?itok=wa6I7NL3" data-media-id="559266">
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<img alt="A pair of chopped up human lungs in a large "V" shaped blender." height="1812" loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/images/2019/10/28/contaminated_human_lung_in_v_blender.jpg" typeof="foaf:Image" width="2898">
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<figcaption class="nist-image__caption">Chopped, freeze dried contaminated human lungs in a "V' blender with an intensifier bar before being broken down into smaller pieces.<div class="nist-image__credit">
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<span class="nist-image__credit-label">Credit:</span>
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Ken Inn/NIST
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</div></div><p>Once we had finished freeze-drying, blending, pulverizing and bottling the SRMs, it was time to analyze them to see if we had gotten it right.</p><p>Since this was our first effort to produce and certify radioactive human lung and liver SRMs, we needed to generate the data with the cooperation of expert national and international laboratories with many years of radioanalytical experience. It was an honor to work with the great radioanalytical chemists from these distinguished laboratories, particularly because they placed the reputations of their laboratories on public display and steadfastly stood behind the quality of their work.</p><h2>Certifying the Final Results</h2><p>The results from the laboratories were then critically evaluated by collaborating with NIST’s statisticians.</p><p>According to the final analysis, the human liver SRM, <a href="https://www-s.nist.gov/srmors/view_detail.cfm?srm=4352">SRM 4352</a>, we created contains two forms or isotopes of plutonium and is certified to release 2.06 becquerels of radiation per kilogram of dry tissue, plus or minus 19%, with a 95% level of statistical confidence at the date the SRM was certified.</p><p>Similarly, the human lung SRM, <a href="https://www-s.nist.gov/srmors/view_detail.cfm?srm=4351">SRM 4351</a>, contains two isotopes of plutonium and is certified to release 1.29 becquerels of radiation per kilogram of dry tissue, plus 66% to minus 19%, with a 95% level of statistical confidence at the date the SRM was certified.</p><p>Although the uncertainty for SRM 4351 is large, the effort resulted in a unique material and an effort to improve it will probably not be attempted for the foreseeable future due to logistical and budgetary reasons.</p><p>After all this effort, my final act was to place my hand over my heart and say to myself that I believed in the certified values from what we had done.</p><p>Once the SRMs were measured and certified, they were packaged and made available for sale. They were primarily used as quality control materials to determine the accuracy of the measurements of plutonium and other radionuclides in contaminated lungs and livers. For instance, when there is a radioactive contamination event like an accident at a U.S. nuclear weapons legacy cleanup site or incidents like Chernobyl or Fukushima, victims are screened to see what and how many radionuclides are passing through their bodies. The resulting data is then put through the NCRP and ICRP models to determine the location and content of radioactivity in the body. Doctors can then use those models to determine the short- and long-term radiation exposure and develop a therapeutic response.</p><h2>Conclusions</h2><p>Although these SRMs may have been a once-in-a-lifetime effort to meet past and current needs, there will be future needs for new SRMs of this sort for applications dealing with nuclear power plant construction, as well as decommissioning and decontamination, spent fuel processing, nuclear forensics, nuclear and industrial accidents, and potentially nuclear terrorism. The work will not necessarily be pretty or high tech, but it will significantly affect the health and well-being of future radiation exposure victims. </p><p>It has been my profound privilege to have worked with and learned from my mentors and staff and to have had national, international and industrial luminaries as collaborators. It was fulfilling for me to roll up my sleeves and produce meaningful and beneficial SRMs for the national and international radioanalytical metrology community.</p>
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<div class="text-with-summary"><p>Kenneth G.W. Inn <span><span><span><span><span>has directed programs in low‑level radionuclide environmental‑matrix Standard Reference Materials, radionuclide speciation in soils and sediments, and emergency response (nuclear terrorism or unintentional release) and low‑level radiochemistry traceability evaluations. </span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span>He served at NBS/NIST as a research chemist, a scientific assistant with the U.S. Department of Commerce Undersecretary of Technology and Center for Radiation Research, a group leader in the Office of Radiation Measurements, and Radioactivity Group project leader in low-level radiochemistry. </span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span>To stay grounded throughout his career, he earned a 6th-degree black belt in Kukkiwon Tae Kwon Do with his son, Jarrett, and support from his wife Estelle and daughter Rachel.</span></span></span></span></span></p></div>
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<h3 class="nist-teaser__title"><a href="/blogs/taking-measure/high-flying-science-how-and-why-we-sent-refrigerator-halfway-space"><span>High-Flying Science: How and Why We Sent a Refrigerator Halfway to Space</span>
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<div class="nist-teaser__date">
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<div class="daterange"><time datetime="2025-02-12T12:00:00Z">February 12, 2025</time>
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<div class="text-with-summary"> NIST-developed tools can study the remnants of the Big Bang and more, and now researchers are working to launch these tools high above the Earth’s atmosphere —
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<article
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<h3 class="nist-teaser__title"><a href="/blogs/taking-measure/5-concepts-can-help-you-understand-quantum-mechanics-and-technology-without"><span>5 Concepts Can Help You Understand Quantum Mechanics and Technology — Without Math!</span>
|
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</a></h3>
|
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<div class="nist-teaser__date">
|
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<div class="text-with-summary"> Quantum is everywhere, and you can understand the basic quirks of life at the quantum level … no math required.
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<div class="entity-reference"> <a href="/blogs/taking-measure/robots-and-ai-are-working-together-bring-you-better-medicines-shampoo-and-more" hreflang="en"><img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/images/2024/12/18/peter_beaucage_afl_equipment_121024.jpg?itok=CdxapNjs" width="100" height="67" alt="Peter Beaucage wears safety glasses as he stands in the lab, holding a piece of equipment on display. " typeof="foaf:Image" />
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<h3 class="nist-teaser__title"><a href="/blogs/taking-measure/robots-and-ai-are-working-together-bring-you-better-medicines-shampoo-and-more"><span>Robots and AI Are Working Together to Bring You Better Medicines, Shampoo and More</span>
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<div class="text-with-summary"> Products you use every day are carefully formulated in a lab. Experts at NIST are now working to revolutionize how those products are made.
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<span class="nist-comment__author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Daniel J Strom</span></span>
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on
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<span class="nist-comment__date">October 29, 2019 2:23 PM</span>
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<div class="text-long"><p>The study of human volunteers alluded to by Dr. Inn continues at the United States Transuranium and Uranium Registries, funded by the U.S. Department of Energy and located at Washington State University.</p>
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