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<div class="pre-content"><div><div class="bk_prnt"><p class="small">NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.</p></div><div class="pagination bk_noprnt"><span class="inactive page_link prev">< Prev</span><a class="active page_link next" href="/books/n/webvision/webvision_book_info/" title="Next page in this title">Next ></a></div></div></div>
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<div class="main-content lit-style" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Book"><div class="meta-content fm-sec"><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix no_top_margin"><a href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/" title="University of Utah Health Sciences Center" class="img_link icnblk_img" ref="pagearea=logo&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher"><img class="source-thumb" src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-webvision-lrg.png" alt="Cover of Webvision" /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt"><h1 id="_NBK11530_"><span itemprop="name">Webvision</span></h1><div class="subtitle">The Organization of the Retina and Visual System</div><p class="contrib-group">Editors: <span itemprop="editor">Helga Kolb</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Eduardo Fernandez</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Bryan Jones</span>, and <span itemprop="editor">Ralph Nelson</span>.</p><div class="half_rhythm">Salt Lake City (UT): <a href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher"><span itemprop="publisher">University of Utah Health Sciences Center</span></a>; <span itemprop="datePublished">1995</span>-.</div><div class="half_rhythm"><ul class="inline_list"><li><span class="label"><a data-jig="ncbidialog" href="#_ncbi_dlg_cpyrght_NBK11530" data-jigconfig="modal:true">Copyright and
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Permissions</a></span></li></ul></div><div id="_ncbi_dlg_cpyrght_NBK11530" style="display:none" title="Copyright and Permissions"><div><div>Copyright: © 2025 Webvision.</div><div class="half_rhythm"><div>All copyright for chapters belongs to the individual authors who created them. However, for non-commercial, academic purposes, images and content from the chapters portion of Webvision may be used with a non-exclusive rights under a Attribution, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Noncommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC) Creative Commons license</a>. Cite Webvision, http://webvision.med.utah.edu/ as the source. Commercial applications need to obtain license permission from the administrator of Webvision and are generally declined unless the copyright owner can/wants to donate or license material. Use online should be accompanied by a link back to the original source of the material. All imagery or content associated with blog posts belong to the authors of said posts, except where otherwise noted.</div></div></div></div><div class="bk_noprnt"><form method="get" action="/books/n/webvision/" id="bk_srch"><div class="bk_search"><label for="bk_term" class="offscreen_noflow">Search term</label><input type="text" title="Search this book" id="bk_term" name="term" value="" data-jig="ncbiclearbutton" /> <input type="submit" class="jig-ncbibutton" value="Search this book" submit="false" style="padding: 0.1em 0.4em;" /></div></form></div></div></div></div><div class="body-content whole_rhythm" itemprop="text"><div itemprop="description"><h2>Excerpt</h2><p>Understanding the organization of the vertebrate retina has been the goal of many
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talented visual scientists during the past 100 years. With Cajal's (1892) anatomic
|
|
descriptions of the cell types that constitute the retina in a number of vertebrate
|
|
species, and with an early understanding of the role of visual purple in photochemistry
|
|
in combination with psychophysical studies of adaptation and color vision, we had in the
|
|
sixties the rudiments of an understanding of how the retina might be organized and
|
|
functioning.</p><p>To go further, though, we were beginning to need detailed information of neural circuits
|
|
that underlie these functions. It was the advent of electron microscopy, microelectrode
|
|
recording techniques, and pharmacology that then allowed us an era of very rapid
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|
advancement. The purpose of this Electronic Tutorial is to summarize these recent
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|
advances and to describe our present understanding, based primarily on anatomic
|
|
investigations, of the Neural Organization of the Mammalian Retina. As time goes on we
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|
have been inviting other authors to write chapters on their speciality concerning the
|
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retina or other visual pathways. A great addition has been a section on Psychophysics of
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|
Vision which we hope will be of general information to all interested in learning the
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basics of visual perception.</p></div><div><h2>Contents</h2><ul id="toc_tllNBK11530_toc_webvision_book_info" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_webvision_book_info"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/webvision_book_info/">About the Editors</a><div>Helga Kolb, Eduardo Fernandez, Bryan Jones, and Ralph Nelson.</div><div class="small">Last Update: October 8, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_foundations"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/foundations/">Part I: Foundations</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_foundations" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_A110"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/A110/">Introduction</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_A5"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/A5/">Gross Anatomy of the Eye</a><div>Helga E. Kolb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: October 10, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_A34"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/A34/">Simple Anatomy of the Retina</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: January 31, 2012.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_howretinaworks"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/howretinaworks/">How the Retina Works (pdf)</a><div>Helga E. Kolb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: October 10, 2024.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_anatomyandphys"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/anatomyandphys/">Part II: Anatomy and Physiology of the retina</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_anatomyandphys" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_StraussRPE"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/StraussRPE/">The Retinal Pigment Epithelium</a><div>Olaf Strauss.</div><div class="small">Created: January 26, 2011.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_A112"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/A112/">Photoreceptors</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_A207"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/A207/">OUTER PLEXIFORM LAYER</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: October 8, 2011.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch06ipl"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch06ipl/">Inner Plexiform Layer</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 25, 2012.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch07gc1"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch07gc1/">Morphology and Circuitry of Ganglion Cells by Helga Kolb</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch08gcphys"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch08gcphys/">Visual Responses of Ganglion Cells</a><div>Ralph Nelson.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2001; Last Update: April 10, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch08Amelan"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch08Amelan/">Melanopsin-expressing, Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGCs)</a><div>Dustin M. Graham and Kwoon Y. Wong.</div><div class="small">Created: August 1, 2008; Last Update: November 2, 2016.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch09glia"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch09glia/">Glial cells of the Retina by Helga Kolb</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_Archetecture_Fovea"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/Archetecture_Fovea/">The Architecture of the Human Fovea</a><div>Helga Kolb, Ralph F. Nelson, Peter K. Ahnelt, Isabel Ortuño-Lizarán, and Nicolas Cuenca.</div><div class="small">Created: February 7, 2020; Last Update: May 20, 2020.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_circuits"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/circuits/">Part III: Retinal Circuits</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_circuits" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch10rodpath"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch10rodpath/">Circuitry for Rod Signals through the Retina</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2001; Last Update: September 1, 2009.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch11cone"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch11cone/">Cone Pathways through the Retina by Helga Kolb</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch12amacrines"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch12amacrines/">Roles of Amacrine Cells by Helga Kolb</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_LiuDirectSelect"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/LiuDirectSelect/">The Anatomy and Physiology of Direction-Selective Retinal Ganglion Cells</a><div>Jinyue Liu.</div><div class="small">Created: August 20, 2015.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch13aii"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch13aii/">AII Amacrine Cells by Mahnoosh Farsaii and Victoria P. Connaughton</a><div>Mahnoosh Farsaii and Victoria P. Connaughton.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch14midget"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch14midget/">Midget pathways of the primate retina underlie resolution and red green color opponency</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 24, 2007; Last Update: April 4, 2012.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch15s-cone"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch15s-cone/">S-Cone Pathways by Helga Kolb</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch16fbloops"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch16fbloops/">Feedback Loops in the Retina</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: May 4, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_gapjunctions_retina"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/gapjunctions_retina/">Myriad roles for gap junctions in retinal circuits</a><div>Stuart Trenholm and Gautam B. Awatramani.</div><div class="small">Created: September 20, 2019.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_neurotrans"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/neurotrans/">Part IV: Neurotransmitters in the Retina</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_neurotrans" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch17nt"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch17nt/">Neurotransmitters in the Retina by Helga Kolb</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_HaverkampGRD"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/HaverkampGRD/">Glycine Receptor Diversity in the Mammalian Retina</a><div>Silke Haverkamp.</div><div class="small">Created: March 27, 2012.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_PopovaDopamine"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/PopovaDopamine/">Role of Dopamine in Retinal Function</a><div>Elka Popova.</div><div class="small">Created: May 28, 2020.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_phototransduction"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/phototransduction/">Part V: Phototransduction and Photoreceptor Synaptic Pathways</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_phototransduction" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_FuPhototran"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/FuPhototran/">Phototransduction in Rods and Cones</a><div>Yingbin Fu.</div><div class="small">Created: April 1, 2010; Last Update: July 30, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch18glu"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch18glu/">Glutamate and Glutamate Receptors in the Vertebrate Retina</a><div>Victoria Connaughton.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: May 7, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch19bcchapter"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch19bcchapter/">Bipolar Cell Pathways in the Vertebrate Retina</a><div>Ralph Nelson and Victoria Connaughton.</div><div class="small">Created: May 24, 2007; Last Update: January 20, 2012.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch23gaba-c"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch23gaba-c/">GABA<sub>C</sub> Receptors in the Vertebrate Retina</a><div>Haohua Qian.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: June 1, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch05hc"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch05hc/">S-Potentials and Horizontal Cells</a><div>Ido Perlman, Helga Kolb, and Ralph Nelson.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2007; Last Update: December 30, 2011.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_neurogenisis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/neurogenisis/">Part VI: Retinal Neurogenesis: Early stages in the development of neurons and pathways: Early stages in the Development of Neurons and Pathways</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_neurogenisis" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch20wong"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch20wong/">Development of cell types and synaptic connections in the retina by Josh Morgan and Rachel Wong</a><div>Josh Morgan and Rachel Wong.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 30, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch21dev2"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch21dev2/">Formation of Early Retinal Circuits in the Inner-Plexiform Layer</a><div>Kevin Ford and Marla Feller.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: January 16, 2012.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_NingRGCD"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/NingRGCD/">Development of Retinal Ganglion Cell Dendritic Structure and Synaptic Connections</a><div>Ning Tian.</div><div class="small">Created: June 13, 2012.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_colorpercep"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/colorpercep/">Part VII: Color Vision</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_colorpercep" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch22color"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch22color/">Color Vision</a><div>Peter Gouras.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: July 1, 2009.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_visualbehav"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/visualbehav/">Part VIII: Psychophysics of Vision</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_visualbehav" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch24psych1"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch24psych1/">Psychophysics of Vision by Michael Kalloniatis and Charles Luu</a><div>Michael Kalloniatis and Charles Luu.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 19, 2011.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch25kallspatial"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch25kallspatial/">Visual Acuity</a><div>Michael Kalloniatis and Charles Luu.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: June 5, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch26temporal"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch26temporal/">Temporal Resolution</a><div>Michael Kalloniatis and Charles Luu.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: June 5, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch27light_dark"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch27light_dark/">Light and Dark Adaptation</a><div>Michael Kalloniatis and Charles Luu.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: July 9, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch28kallcolor"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch28kallcolor/">The Perception of Color</a><div>Michael Kalloniatis and Charles Luu.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: July 9, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch29space_perceptio"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch29space_perceptio/">The Perception of Space</a><div>Michael Kalloniatis and Charles Luu.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: June 6, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch30kalldepth"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch30kalldepth/">The Perception of Depth</a><div>Michael Kalloniatis and Charles Luu.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: June 6, 2007.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_brainvisual"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/brainvisual/">Part IX: Brain Visual Areas</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_brainvisual" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch31visualcortex"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch31visualcortex/">The Primary Visual Cortex</a><div>Matthew Schmolesky.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: June 14, 2007.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_repair"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/repair/">Part X: Repair and Regeneration in the visual sytem</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_repair" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch32nona"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch32nona/">Regeneration in the Goldfish Visual System</a><div>Sam Nona.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: June 20, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch33regeneration1"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch33regeneration1/">Regeneration in the Visual System of Adult Mammals</a><div>Yves Sauve and Frederic Gaillard.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: June 21, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch34regeneration2"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch34regeneration2/">Fetal Tissue Allografts in the Central Visual System of Rodents</a><div>Frederic Gaillard and Yves Sauve.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: June 25, 2007.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_electroretinography"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/electroretinography/">Part XI: Electrophysiology</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_electroretinography" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_CreelVEP"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/CreelVEP/">VISUALLY EVOKED POTENTIALS</a><div>Donnell J. Creel.</div><div class="small">Created: March 1, 2012; Last Update: July 14, 2015.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch35erg"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch35erg/">The Electroretinogram: ERG</a><div>Ido Perlman.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2001; Last Update: June 27, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch36clinicalerg"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch36clinicalerg/">The Electroretinogram and Electro-oculogram: Clinical Applications</a><div>Donnell J. Creel.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 14, 2015.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_CreelAlbinism"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/CreelAlbinism/">Visual and Auditory Anomalies Associated with Albinism</a><div>Donnell J. Creel.</div><div class="small">Created: June 18, 2015.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_diseases"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/diseases/">Part XII: Investigations of Human Retinal Disease</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_diseases" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_retinal_degeneration"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/retinal_degeneration/">Retinal Degeneration, Remodeling and Plasticity</a><div>Bryan William Jones, Robert E. Marc, and Rebecca L. Pfeiffer.</div><div class="small">Created: October 28, 2016.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch37fisher"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch37fisher/">Cellular Remodeling in Mammalian Retina Induced by Retinal Detachment</a><div>Steven K. Fisher, Geoffrey P. Lewis, Kenneth A. Linberg, Edward Barawid, and Mark R. Verardo.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: July 3, 2007.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch38macular"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch38macular/">Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)</a><div>Gregory S. Hageman, Karen Gehrs, Lincoln V. Johnson, and Don Anderson.</div><div class="small">Created: January 1, 2008.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ArdenRetinopathy"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ArdenRetinopathy/">Diabetic retinopathy and a novel treatment based on the biophysics of rod photoreceptors and dark adaptation</a><div>Geoffrey B. Arden and David J. Ramsey.</div><div class="small">Created: July 14, 2015.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_diseases_glaucoma"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/diseases_glaucoma/">What is glaucoma?</a><div>David Križaj.</div><div class="small">Created: May 30, 2019.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_factsandfigs"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/factsandfigs/">Part XIII: Facts and Figures concerning the human retina by Helga Kolb</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_factsandfigs" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_ch38facts"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/ch38facts/">Facts and Figures Concerning the Human Retina</a><div>Helga Kolb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 1, 2005; Last Update: July 5, 2007.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_eyeevolution"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/eyeevolution/">Part XIV: Evolution of Phototransduction, Vertebrate Photoreceptors and Retina by Trevor Lamb</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_eyeevolution" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_Lambevolution"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/Lambevolution/">Evolution of Phototransduction, Vertebrate Photoreceptors and Retina</a><div>Trevor D Lamb.</div><div class="small">Created: May 14, 2013; Last Update: July 10, 2013.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_visualprosthesis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/visualprosthesis/">Part XV: Visual Prostheses</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_visualprosthesis" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_FernandezIVP"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/FernandezIVP/">Introduction to Visual Prostheses</a><div>Eduardo Fernandez and Richard Normann.</div><div class="small">Created: March 9, 2016.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_RetinalProthesis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/RetinalProthesis/">Retinal Prostheses</a><div>Ethan D. Cohen.</div><div class="small">Created: March 19, 2018.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_anteriorsegment"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/anteriorsegment/">Part XVI: Anterior Segment</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_anteriorsegment" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_lens_cataract"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/lens_cataract/">Crystalline Lens and Cataract</a><div>Joah F. Aliancy and Nick Mamalis.</div><div class="small">Created: August 15, 2017.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_intraocular_lenses"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/intraocular_lenses/">Intraocular Lenses for Cataract Surgery</a><div>Jason Nguyen and Liliama Werner.</div><div class="small">Created: August 5, 2017.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_refractiveerrors"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/refractiveerrors/">Part XVII: Refractive Errors</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK11530_toc_refractiveerrors" class="simple-list toc"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK11530_toc_myopia"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/webvision/myopia/">The Science Behind Myopia</a><div>Brittany J. Carr and William K. Stell.</div><div class="small">Created: November 7, 2017.</div></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></div>
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