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<meta name="robots" content="INDEX,FOLLOW,NOARCHIVE" /><meta name="citation_inbook_title" content="Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System [Internet]" /><meta name="citation_title" content="Facts and Figures Concerning the Human Retina" /><meta name="citation_publisher" content="University of Utah Health Sciences Center" /><meta name="citation_date" content="2007/07/05" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Helga Kolb" /><meta name="citation_pmid" content="21413409" /><meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11556/" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/DC/elements/1.0/" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="Facts and Figures Concerning the Human Retina" /><meta name="DC.Type" content="Text" /><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="University of Utah Health Sciences Center" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Helga Kolb" /><meta name="DC.Date" content="2007/07/05" /><meta name="DC.Identifier" content="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11556/" /><meta name="description" content="The vertical extent of the retina across the horizontal meridian at different eccentricities is shown in Fig. 3. This is taken from data given by Sigelman and Ozanics (20). The small black numbers are the originals from Sigelman and Ozanics which were measured in typical histological preparations where there is a great deal of shrinkage. The figures in red are those recently measured by Ahnelt (personal communication) in well fixed EM quality material where there is little or no shrinkage. Hence the latter numbers are larger. The numbers are in mm." /><meta name="og:title" content="Facts and Figures Concerning the Human Retina" /><meta name="og:type" content="book" /><meta name="og:description" content="The vertical extent of the retina across the horizontal meridian at different eccentricities is shown in Fig. 3. This is taken from data given by Sigelman and Ozanics (20). The small black numbers are the originals from Sigelman and Ozanics which were measured in typical histological preparations where there is a great deal of shrinkage. The figures in red are those recently measured by Ahnelt (personal communication) in well fixed EM quality material where there is little or no shrinkage. Hence the latter numbers are larger. The numbers are in mm." /><meta name="og:url" content="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11556/" /><meta name="og:site_name" content="NCBI Bookshelf" /><meta name="og:image" content="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-webvision-lrg.png" /><meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /><meta name="twitter:site" content="@ncbibooks" /><meta name="bk-non-canon-loc" content="/books/n/webvision/ch38facts/" /><link rel="canonical" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11556/" /><link rel="stylesheet" href="/corehtml/pmc/css/figpopup.css" type="text/css" media="screen" /><link rel="stylesheet" href="/corehtml/pmc/css/bookshelf/2.26/css/books.min.css" type="text/css" /><link rel="stylesheet" href="/corehtml/pmc/css/bookshelf/2.26/css/books_print.min.css" type="text/css" media="print" /><style type="text/css">p a.figpopup{display:inline !important} .bk_tt {font-family: monospace} .first-line-outdent .bk_ref {display: inline} .body-content h2, .body-content .h2 {border-bottom: 1px solid #97B0C8} .body-content h2.inline {border-bottom: none} a.page-toc-label , .jig-ncbismoothscroll a {text-decoration:none;border:0 !important} .temp-labeled-list .graphic {display:inline-block !important} .temp-labeled-list img{width:100%}</style><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/jquery.hoverIntent.min.js"> </script><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/common.min.js?_=3.18"> </script><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/large-obj-scrollbars.min.js"> </script><script type="text/javascript">window.name="mainwindow";</script><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/bookshelf/2.26/book-toc.min.js"> </script><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/bookshelf/2.26/books.min.js"> </script><meta name="book-collection" content="NONE" />
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<div class="pre-content"><div><div class="bk_prnt"><p class="small">NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.</p><p>Kolb H, Fernandez E, Jones B, et al., editors. Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System [Internet]. Salt Lake City (UT): University of Utah Health Sciences Center; 1995-. </p></div><div class="iconblock clearfix whole_rhythm no_top_margin bk_noprnt"><a class="img_link icnblk_img" title="Table of Contents Page" href="/books/n/webvision/"><img class="source-thumb" src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-webvision-lrg.png" alt="Cover of Webvision" height="100px" width="80px" /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt eight_col"><h2>Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System [Internet].</h2><a data-jig="ncbitoggler" href="#__NBK11556_dtls__">Show details</a><div style="display:none" class="ui-widget" id="__NBK11556_dtls__"><div>Kolb H, Fernandez E, Jones B, et al., editors.</div><div>Salt Lake City (UT): <a href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/" ref="pagearea=page-banner&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher">University of Utah Health Sciences Center</a>; 1995-.</div></div><div class="half_rhythm"><ul class="inline_list"><li style="margin-right:1em"><a class="bk_cntns" href="/books/n/webvision/">Contents</a></li></ul></div><div class="bk_noprnt"><form method="get" action="/books/n/webvision/" id="bk_srch"><div class="bk_search"><label for="bk_term" class="offscreen_noflow">Search term</label><input type="text" title="Search this book" id="bk_term" name="term" value="" data-jig="ncbiclearbutton" /> <input type="submit" class="jig-ncbibutton" value="Search this book" submit="false" style="padding: 0.1em 0.4em;" /></div></form></div></div><div class="icnblk_cntnt two_col"><div class="pagination bk_noprnt"><a class="active page_link prev" href="/books/n/webvision/factsandfigs/" title="Previous page in this title">< Prev</a><a class="active page_link next" href="/books/n/webvision/eyeevolution/" title="Next page in this title">Next ></a></div></div></div></div></div>
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<div class="main-content lit-style" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/CreativeWork"><div class="meta-content fm-sec"><h1 id="_NBK11556_"><span class="title" itemprop="name">Facts and Figures Concerning the Human Retina</span></h1><p class="contrib-group"><span itemprop="author">Helga Kolb</span>.</p><p class="small">Created: <span itemprop="datePublished">May 1, 2005</span>; Last Update: <span itemprop="dateModified">July 5, 2007</span>.</p></div><div class="jig-ncbiinpagenav body-content whole_rhythm" data-jigconfig="allHeadingLevels: ['h2'],smoothScroll: false" itemprop="text"><div id="ch38facts.Size_of_the_Retina"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Size_of_the_Retina_">Size of the Retina</h2><ul><li id="A4312" class="half_rhythm"><div>32 mm from ora to ora along the horizontal meridian (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.1">1</a>) (Kolb, unpublished
|
||
measurements).</div></li><li id="A4313" class="half_rhythm"><div>The area of the human retina is 1,094 square mm (Bernstein, personal
|
||
communication), calculated from the expectations that the average dimension
|
||
of the human eye is 22 mm from anterior to posterior poles, and that 72% of
|
||
the inside of the globe is retina (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.2">2</a>). See also Penkhus (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.3">3</a>).</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Size_of_Optic_Nerve_"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Size_of_Optic_Nerve__">Size of Optic Nerve Head or Disc</h2><ul><li id="A4314" class="half_rhythm"><div>1.86 × 1.75 mm (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F1/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF1" rid-ob="figobch38factsF1">Fig. 1</a>)</div></li></ul><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figch38factsF1" co-legend-rid="figlgndch38factsF1"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F1/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 1" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF1" rid-ob="figobch38factsF1"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf1.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf1.jpg" alt="Figure 1. Topography and dimensions of optic nerve and fovea." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndch38factsF1"><h4 id="ch38facts.F1"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F1/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobch38factsF1">Figure 1</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Topography and dimensions of optic nerve and fovea. </p></div></div></div><div id="ch38facts.Degrees_and_Distance"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Degrees_and_Distance_">Degrees and Distance in Micometers</h2><ul><li id="A4315" class="half_rhythm"><div>One degree of visual angle is equal to 288 μm on the retina
|
||
without correction for shrinkage (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.4">4</a>).</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Foveal_Position"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Foveal_Position_">Foveal Position</h2><ul><li id="A4316" class="half_rhythm"><div>11.8° or or 3.4 mm temporal to the optic disk edge</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts._Cross_Diameter_of_th"><h2 id="_ch38facts__Cross_Diameter_of_th_">Cross Diameter of the Macula</h2><ul><li id="A4317" class="half_rhythm"><div>3 mm of intense pigmentation, surrounded by a 1-mm-wide zone of less
|
||
pigmentation (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.5">5</a>).</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts._Cross_Diameter_of_th_1"><h2 id="_ch38facts__Cross_Diameter_of_th_1_">Cross Diameter of the Central Fovea from Foveal Rim to Foveal Rim</h2><ul><li id="A4318" class="half_rhythm"><div>1.5 mm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.5">5</a>)</div></li><li id="A4319" class="half_rhythm"><div>1.2-1.5 mm (Ahnelt and Kolb, unpublished data) (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F2a/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF2a" rid-ob="figobch38factsF2a">Fig. 2a</a> and
|
||
<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F2b/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF2b" rid-ob="figobch38factsF2b">Fig. 2b</a>)</div></li></ul><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figch38factsF2a" co-legend-rid="figlgndch38factsF2a"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F2a/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 2a" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF2a" rid-ob="figobch38factsF2a"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf2a.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf2a.jpg" alt="Figure 2a. Vertical section of the human fovea." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndch38factsF2a"><h4 id="ch38facts.F2a"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F2a/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobch38factsF2a">Figure 2a</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Vertical section of the human fovea. os, outer segments; is, inner
|
||
segments; OLM, outer limiting membrane; ONL, outer nuclear layer; H, Henle
|
||
fibers; INL, inner nuclear layer; ILM, inner limiting membrane; G, ganglion
|
||
cells. From Yamada (7). </p></div></div><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figch38factsF2b" co-legend-rid="figlgndch38factsF2b"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F2b/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 2b" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF2b" rid-ob="figobch38factsF2b"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf2b.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf2b.jpg" alt="Figure 2b. Vertical section of the monkey fovea." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndch38factsF2b"><h4 id="ch38facts.F2b"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F2b/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobch38factsF2b">Figure 2b</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Vertical section of the monkey fovea. From Hagerman and Johnson
|
||
(19). </p></div></div></div><div id="ch38facts.Cross_Diameter_of_Ce"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Cross_Diameter_of_Ce_">Cross Diameter of Central Rod-free Area</h2><ul><li id="A4320" class="half_rhythm"><div>400-600 μm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.5">5</a>)</div></li><li id="A4321" class="half_rhythm"><div>750 μm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.6">6</a>)</div></li><li id="A4322" class="half_rhythm"><div>570 μm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.7">7</a>)</div></li><li id="A4323" class="half_rhythm"><div>250 μm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.8">8</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Vertical_Thickness_o"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Vertical_Thickness_o_">Vertical Thickness of the Fovea from Inner Limiting Membrane (ILM) to ELM</h2><ul><li id="A4324" class="half_rhythm"><div>in the foveal pit, 150 μm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.7">7</a>)</div></li><li id="A4325" class="half_rhythm"><div>foveal rim, 400 μm</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Central_Region_of_Fo"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Central_Region_of_Fo_">Central Region of Fovea Where There Are No Cone Pedicles</h2><ul><li id="A4326" class="half_rhythm"><div>250 μm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.7">7</a>)</div></li><li id="A4327" class="half_rhythm"><div>200 μm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.6">6</a>)</div></li><li id="A4328" class="half_rhythm"><div>300 μm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.9">9</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Length_of_Foveal_Axo"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Length_of_Foveal_Axo_">Length of Foveal Axons (Henle Fibers)</h2><ul><li id="A4329" class="half_rhythm"><div>150-300 μm (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.9">9</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="A4438"><h2 id="_A4438_">Vertical Thickness of the Retina in Different Areas</h2><p>The vertical extent of the retina across the horizontal meridian at different
|
||
eccentricities is shown in <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F3/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF3" rid-ob="figobch38factsF3">Fig. 3</a>. This is taken from data given
|
||
by Sigelman and Ozanics (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.20">20</a>). The small black numbers are the originals from Sigelman and Ozanics
|
||
which were measured in typical histological preparations where there is a great deal
|
||
of shrinkage. The figures in red are those recently measured by Ahnelt (personal
|
||
communication) in well fixed EM quality material where there is little or no
|
||
shrinkage. Hence the latter numbers are larger. The numbers are in mm.</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figch38factsF3" co-legend-rid="figlgndch38factsF3"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F3/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 3" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF3" rid-ob="figobch38factsF3"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf3.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf3.jpg" alt="Figure 3. The retinal thickness shows greatest variations in the center." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndch38factsF3"><h4 id="ch38facts.F3"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F3/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobch38factsF3">Figure 3</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">The retinal thickness shows greatest variations in the center. The
|
||
retina is thinnest at the foveal floor (0.10, 0.150-0.200 mm) and thickest
|
||
(0.23, 0.320 mm) at the foveal rim. Beyond the fovea the retina rapidly
|
||
thins until the equator. At the ora serrata <a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F3/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobch38factsF3">(more...)</a></p></div></div></div><div id="ch38facts.Age_When_Fovea_Is_Fu"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Age_When_Fovea_Is_Fu_">Age When Fovea Is Fully Developed</h2><ul><li id="A4330" class="half_rhythm"><div>not before 4 years of age (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.6">6</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Highest_Density_of_C"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Highest_Density_of_C_">Highest Density of Cones at Center of the Fovea (50 × 50
|
||
μm)</h2><ul><li id="A4331" class="half_rhythm"><div>147,000/mm<sup>2</sup> (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.10">10</a>)</div></li><li id="A4332" class="half_rhythm"><div>178,000-238,000/mm<sup>2</sup> (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.8">8</a>)</div></li><li id="A4333" class="half_rhythm"><div>96,900-281,000/mm<sup>2</sup>; mean, 161,900/mm<sup>2</sup> (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.11">11</a>) (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F4/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF4" rid-ob="figobch38factsF4">Fig.
|
||
4</a>)</div></li></ul><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figch38factsF4" co-legend-rid="figlgndch38factsF4"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F4/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 4" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF4" rid-ob="figobch38factsF4"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf4.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf4.jpg" alt="Figure 4. Tangential section through the human fovea." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndch38factsF4"><h4 id="ch38facts.F4"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F4/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobch38factsF4">Figure 4</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Tangential section through the human fovea. Larger cones (arrows)
|
||
are blue cones. </p></div></div></div><div id="ch38facts._Total_Number_of_Cone"><h2 id="_ch38facts__Total_Number_of_Cone_">Total Number of Cones in Fovea</h2><ul><li id="A4334" class="half_rhythm"><div>approximately 200,000. 17,500 cones/degree<sup>2</sup>. Rod-free area is
|
||
1°; thus, there are 17,500 cones in the central rod-free
|
||
fovea.</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts._Total_Number_of_Cone_1"><h2 id="_ch38facts__Total_Number_of_Cone_1_">Total Number of Cones in the Retina</h2><ul><li id="A4335" class="half_rhythm"><div>6,400,000 (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.10">10</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Total_Number_of_Rods"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Total_Number_of_Rods_">Total Number of Rods in the Retina</h2><ul><li id="A4336" class="half_rhythm"><div>110,000,000 to 125,000,000 (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.10">10</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Rod_Distribution"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Rod_Distribution_">Rod Distribution</h2><ul><li id="A4337" class="half_rhythm"><div>Rods peak in density 18° or 5 mm out from the center of the
|
||
fovea, in a ring around the fovea at 160,000 rods/mm<sup>2</sup></div></li><li id="A4338" class="half_rhythm"><div>No rods in central 200 μm</div></li><li id="A4339" class="half_rhythm"><div>Average 80-100,000 rods/mm<sup>2</sup>.</div></li><li id="A4340" class="half_rhythm"><div>Rod acuity peak is at 5.2° or 1.5 mm from foveal center, where
|
||
there are 100,000 rods/mm<sup>2</sup> (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.12">12</a>) (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F5/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF5" rid-ob="figobch38factsF5">Fig. 5</a>)</div></li></ul><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figch38factsF5" co-legend-rid="figlgndch38factsF5"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F5/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 5" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF5" rid-ob="figobch38factsF5"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf5.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf5.jpg" alt="Figure 5. Graph to show rod and cone densities along the horizontal meridian." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndch38factsF5"><h4 id="ch38facts.F5"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F5/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobch38factsF5">Figure 5</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Graph to show rod and cone densities along the horizontal
|
||
meridian. </p></div></div></div><div id="ch38facts.Number_of_Axons_in_t"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Number_of_Axons_in_t_">Number of Axons in the Optic Nerve</h2><ul><li id="A4341" class="half_rhythm"><div>564,776-1,140,030 (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.13">13</a>)</div></li><li id="A4342" class="half_rhythm"><div>800,000-1,000,000 (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.5">5</a>)</div></li><li id="A4343" class="half_rhythm"><div>1,200,000 (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.14">14</a>, <a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.15">15</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Number_of_Cones_to_G"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Number_of_Cones_to_G_">Number of Cones to Ganglion Cells in the Fovea</h2><ul><li id="A4344" class="half_rhythm"><div>1 cone to 2 ganglion cells out to about 2.2° (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.16">16</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Number_of_Cones_Reti"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Number_of_Cones_Reti_">Number of Cones/Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cell (RPE)</h2><ul><li id="A4345" class="half_rhythm"><div>30 cones/RPE in fovea (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.17">17</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Number_of_Rods_Retin"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Number_of_Rods_Retin_">Number of Rods/Retinal Epithelial Cell (RPE)</h2><ul><li id="A4346" class="half_rhythm"><div>in periphery, 22 rods/RPE cell</div></li><li id="A4347" class="half_rhythm"><div>in rod, peak (4-5 mm from foveal center), 28 rods/RPE cell (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.17">17</a>)</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Number_of_Neural_and"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Number_of_Neural_and_">Number of Neural and Glial Types in the Retina</h2><p>The retina consists of many millions of cell types packed together in a tightly knit
|
||
network spread over the surface of the back of the eye fundus as a thin film of
|
||
tissue only 1/2 millimeter thick. The retina is like a three-layered cake with three
|
||
layers containing cell bodies of neurons and two filling layers where synapses
|
||
between the neurons occur. There are two basic kinds of
|
||
photoreceptors—rods and cones. The cones are further subdivided into two
|
||
types (long- and short-wavelength sensitive) in the majority of mammals, i.e., most
|
||
mammals, which are dichromats and have divariant color vision. In primates, a third
|
||
wavelength-sensitive cone has developed closely related to the long-wavelength cone
|
||
type but a little more sensitive in the middle wavelength (i.e., green cone). Thus,
|
||
primates including humans are trichromats and have trivariant color vision. Many
|
||
reptiles, birds, and fish have four or even five types of cone, each sensitive to a
|
||
slightly different peak wavelength.</p><p>The second-order neurons, postsynaptic to the photorecepors in the first synaptic
|
||
(filling layer) (outer plexiform layer), are bipolar cells and horizontal cells.
|
||
There are nine types of bipolar cell and two to four types of horizontal cell in
|
||
species from mammals to fish. The third-order neurons are amacrine cells and
|
||
ganglion cells that synapse in the inner synaptic filling layer (inner plexiform
|
||
layer). There are two types of interplexiform cells stretching between both
|
||
plexiform layers, in most vertebrate retinas. There are approximately 22 types of
|
||
amacrine cell and 20 types of ganglion cell in the typical mammalian retina. There
|
||
may be 30 or more amacrine cell types in fish and reptilian retinas and 22 or so
|
||
ganglion cell types. The increased number of third-order neurons is attributable to
|
||
the greater information processing taking place in the non-mammalian retinas than in
|
||
mammalian retinas.</p><p>All vertebrate retinas also contain large numbers of glial cells. The radial Muller
|
||
cells stretch from outer to inner limiting membranes and surround and isolate all
|
||
neural cell types from each other except at synapses. Microglia arise in times of
|
||
injury and are blood-borne cell types. Astrocytes surround ganglion cell axons and
|
||
inner retinal blood vessels.</p><p><a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F6/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF6" rid-ob="figobch38factsF6">Fig.
|
||
6</a> shows a drawing of the human retina close to the fovea, where all of
|
||
the cell types that have been studied in detail are depicted in their intricate and
|
||
marvellous network.</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figch38factsF6" co-legend-rid="figlgndch38factsF6"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F6/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 6" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figch38factsF6" rid-ob="figobch38factsF6"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf6.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11556/bin/factsf6.jpg" alt="Figure 6. Drawing of a vertical section through the human retina to show the organization of the different neurons and glial cells constituting it." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndch38factsF6"><h4 id="ch38facts.F6"><a href="/books/NBK11556/figure/ch38facts.F6/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobch38factsF6">Figure 6</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Drawing of a vertical section through the human retina to show the
|
||
organization of the different neurons and glial cells constituting it. </p></div></div></div><div id="ch38facts.Useful_Units_in_Visi"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Useful_Units_in_Visi_">Useful Units in Vision Science</h2><p>From Wandell (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.18">18</a>):</p><ul><li id="A4348" class="half_rhythm"><div>Radiometric units represent a physical measurement, e.g., radiance is
|
||
measured in watts sr−<sup>1</sup>
|
||
m−<sup>2</sup>.</div></li><li id="A4349" class="half_rhythm"><div>Calorimetric units adjust radiometric units for visual wavelength
|
||
sensitivity, e.g., luminance is measured in candela per square meter,
|
||
cd/m<sup>2</sup>.</div></li></ul><ul><li id="A4350" class="half_rhythm"><div>Lux are units of illumination. Thus, a light intensity of 1 candela produces
|
||
an illumination of 1 lux at 1 meter.</div><ul><li id="A4351" class="half_rhythm"><div>Scotopic luminance units are proportional to the number of photons
|
||
absorbed by rod photoreceptors to give a criterion psychophysical
|
||
result.</div></li><li id="A4352" class="half_rhythm"><div>Photopic luminance units are proportional to a weighted sum of the
|
||
photons absorbed by L- and M-cones to give a criterion
|
||
psychophysical result.</div></li></ul></li><li id="A4353" class="half_rhythm"><div>Typical ambient luminance levels (cd/m<sup>2</sup>):</div><ul><li id="A4354" class="half_rhythm"><div>Starlight: 0.001</div></li><li id="A4355" class="half_rhythm"><div>Moonlight: 0.1</div></li><li id="A4356" class="half_rhythm"><div>Indoor lighting: 100</div></li><li id="A4357" class="half_rhythm"><div>Sunlight: 10.000</div></li><li id="A4358" class="half_rhythm"><div>Maximum intensity of common CRT monitors: 100</div></li></ul></li><li id="A4359" class="half_rhythm"><div>One Troland (Td) of retinal illumination is produced when an eye with a pupil
|
||
size of 1 mm<sup>2</sup> looks at a surface whose luminance is 1
|
||
cd/m<sup>2</sup>.</div></li><li id="A4360" class="half_rhythm"><div>Lens focal length: f (meters); lens power= 1/f (diopters).</div></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.Image_Formation"><h2 id="_ch38facts_Image_Formation_">Image Formation</h2><p>From Wandell (<a class="bk_pop" href="#ch38facts.EXTYLES.18">18</a>):</p><ul><li id="A4361" class="half_rhythm"><div>The eyes are 6 cm apart and halfway down the head.</div></li><li id="A4362" class="half_rhythm"><div>Visual angle of common objects (degrees, deg)</div><ul><li id="A4363" class="half_rhythm"><div>The sun or moon = 0.5 deg</div></li><li id="A4364" class="half_rhythm"><div>Thumbnail (at arm's length) = 1.5 deg</div></li><li id="A4365" class="half_rhythm"><div>Fist (at arm's length) = 8-10 deg</div></li></ul></li><li id="A4366" class="half_rhythm"><div>Visual field (measured from central fixation)</div><ul><li id="A4367" class="half_rhythm"><div>Monocular: 160 deg (w) × 175 deg (h)</div></li><li id="A4368" class="half_rhythm"><div>Binocular: 200 deg (w) × 135 deg (h)</div></li><li id="A4369" class="half_rhythm"><div>Region of binocular overlap: 120 deg (w) × 135 deg
|
||
(h)</div></li></ul></li><li id="A4370" class="half_rhythm"><div>Range of pupil diameters: 1-8 mm</div></li><li id="A4371" class="half_rhythm"><div>Refractive indices</div><ul><li id="A4372" class="half_rhythm"><div>Air: 1.000</div></li><li id="A4373" class="half_rhythm"><div>Glass: 1.520</div></li><li id="A4374" class="half_rhythm"><div>Water: 1.333</div></li><li id="A4375" class="half_rhythm"><div>Cornea: 1.376</div></li></ul></li><li id="A4376" class="half_rhythm"><div>Optical power (diopters)</div><ul><li id="A4377" class="half_rhythm"><div>Cornea: 43</div></li><li id="A4378" class="half_rhythm"><div>Lens (relaxed): 20</div></li><li id="A4379" class="half_rhythm"><div>Whole eye: 60</div></li><li id="A4380" class="half_rhythm"><div>Change in power due to accomodation: 8</div></li></ul></li><li id="A4381" class="half_rhythm"><div>Axial chromatic aberration over the visible spectrum: 2 diopters</div></li><li id="A4382" class="half_rhythm"><div>Visible spectrum: 370-730 nanometers (nm)</div></li><li id="A4383" class="half_rhythm"><div>Peak wavelength sensitivity</div><ul><li id="A4384" class="half_rhythm"><div>Scotopic: 507 nm</div></li><li id="A4385" class="half_rhythm"><div>Photopic: 555 nm</div></li></ul></li><li id="A4386" class="half_rhythm"><div>Spectral equilibrium hues</div><ul><li id="A4387" class="half_rhythm"><div>Blue: 475 nm</div></li><li id="A4388" class="half_rhythm"><div>Green: 500 nm</div></li><li id="A4389" class="half_rhythm"><div>Yellow: 575 nm</div></li><li id="A4390" class="half_rhythm"><div>No spectral equilibrium: red</div></li></ul></li></ul></div><div id="ch38facts.References"><h2 id="_ch38facts_References_">References</h2><dl class="temp-labeled-list"><dt>1.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.1">Van Buren JM. <span class="ref-journal">The retinal ganglion cell layer.</span> Springfield (IL): Charles C.
|
||
Thomas; 1963. </div></dd><dt>2.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.2">Michels RG, Wilkinson CP, Rice TA. <span class="ref-journal">Retinal detachment.</span> The C.V. Mosby
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||
Company; 1990. p. 17.</div></dd><dt>3.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.3">Penkhus J. <span class="ref-journal">The ora serrata and its anatomical variations. M.S. Thesis.</span> University
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||
of California, Los Angeles; 1965. </div></dd><dt>4.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.4">Drasdo N, Fowler CW. Non-linear projection of the retinal image in a wide-angle
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||
schematic eye. <span><span class="ref-journal">Br J Ophthalmol. </span>1974;<span class="ref-vol">58</span>:709–714.</span> [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC1215006/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC1215006</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4433482" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 4433482</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>5.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.5">Polyak SL. <span class="ref-journal">The retina.</span> Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1941. </div></dd><dt>6.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.6">Hendrickson AE, Youdelis C. The morphological development of the human fovea. <span><span class="ref-journal">Ophthalmology. </span>1984;<span class="ref-vol">91</span>:603–612.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6462623" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 6462623</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>7.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.7">Yamada E. Some structural features of the fovea central is in the human
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retina. <span><span class="ref-journal">Arch Ophthalmol. </span>1969;<span class="ref-vol">82</span>:151–159.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4183671" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 4183671</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>8.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.8">Ahnelt PK, Kolb H, Pflug R. Identification of a subtype of cone photoreceptor, likely to be
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blue sensitive, in the human retina. <span><span class="ref-journal">J Comp Neurol. </span>1987;<span class="ref-vol">255</span>:18–34.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2434534" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 2434534</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>9.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.9">Ahnelt PK, Pflug R. Telodendrial contacts between foveolar cone pedicles in the human
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retina. <span><span class="ref-journal">Experientia. </span>1986;<span class="ref-vol">42</span>:298–300.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3956685" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 3956685</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>10.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.10">Osterberg G. Topography of the layer of rods and cones in the human
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||
retina. <span><span class="ref-journal">Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. </span>1935;<span class="ref-vol">6</span>:1–103.</span></div></dd><dt>11.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.11">Curcio CA, Sloan KR, Packer O, Hendrickson AE, Kalina RE. Distribution of cones in human and monkey retina: individual
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||
variability and radial asymmetry. <span><span class="ref-journal">Science. </span>1987;<span class="ref-vol">236</span>:579–582.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3576186" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 3576186</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>12.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.12">Mariani AP, Kolb H, Nelson R. Dopamine-containing amacrine cells of rhesus monkey retina
|
||
parallel rods in spatial distribution. <span><span class="ref-journal">Brain Res. </span>1984;<span class="ref-vol">322</span>:1–7.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6518360" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 6518360</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>13.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.13">Bruesch SR, Arey LB. The number of myelinated and unmyelinated fibres in the optic
|
||
nerve of vertebrates. <span><span class="ref-journal">J Comp Neurol. </span>1942;<span class="ref-vol">77</span>:631.</span></div></dd><dt>14.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.14">Balazsi AG, Rootman J, Drance SM, Schulzer M, Douglas GR. The effect of age on the nerve fiber population of the human
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||
optic nerve. <span><span class="ref-journal">Am J Ophthalmol. </span>1984;<span class="ref-vol">97</span>:760–766.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6731540" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 6731540</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>15.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.15">Quigley HA, Addicks EM, Green WR. Optic nerve damage inhuman glaucoma. III. Quantitative
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||
correlation of nerve fibre loss and visual defect in glaucoma ischemic
|
||
neuropathy and toxic neuropathy. <span><span class="ref-journal">Arch Ophthalmol. </span>1982;<span class="ref-vol">100</span>:135.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7055464" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 7055464</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>16.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.16">Schein SJ. Anatomy of macaque fovea and spatial densities of neurons in
|
||
foveal representation. <span><span class="ref-journal">J Comp Neurol. </span>1988;<span class="ref-vol">269</span>:479–505.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3372725" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 3372725</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>17.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.17">Rapaport DH, Rakic P, Yasamura D, LaVail MM. Genesis of the retinal pigment epithelium in the macaque
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||
monkey. <span><span class="ref-journal">J Comp Neurol. </span>1995;<span class="ref-vol">363</span>:359–376.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8847405" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 8847405</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>18.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.18">Wandell BA. <span class="ref-journal">Foundations of vision.</span> Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates,
|
||
Inc; 1965. </div></dd><dt>19.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.19">Hagerman GS, Johnson LV. The
|
||
photoreceptor-retinal pigmented epithelial interface. In: Heckenlively JR, Arden
|
||
GB, editors. Principles and practice of clinical electrophysiology of vision.
|
||
St. Louis: Mosby Year Book; 1991.</div></dd><dt>20.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="ch38facts.EXTYLES.20">Sigelman J, Ozanics V. In: Jokobiec FA, editor.
|
||
Ocular anatomy, embryology and teratology. Philadelphia: Harper and Rowe;
|
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1982.</div></dd></dl></div><div id="bk_toc_contnr"></div></div></div>
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<div class="post-content"><div><div class="half_rhythm"><a href="/books/about/copyright/">Copyright</a>: © 2025 Webvision .<p class="small">All copyright for chapters belongs to the individual authors who created them. However, for non-commercial, academic purposes, images and content from the chapters portion of Webvision may be used with a non-exclusive rights under a Attribution, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Noncommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC) Creative Commons license</a>. Cite Webvision, http://webvision.med.utah.edu/ as the source. Commercial applications need to obtain license permission from the administrator of Webvision and are generally declined unless the copyright owner can/wants to donate or license material. Use online should be accompanied by a link back to the original source of the material. All imagery or content associated with blog posts belong to the authors of said posts, except where otherwise noted.</p></div><div class="small"><span class="label">Bookshelf ID: NBK11556</span><span class="label">PMID: <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21413409" title="PubMed record of this page" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">21413409</a></span></div><div style="margin-top:2em" class="bk_noprnt"><a class="bk_cntns" href="/books/n/webvision/">Contents</a><div class="pagination bk_noprnt"><a class="active page_link prev" href="/books/n/webvision/factsandfigs/" title="Previous page in this title">< Prev</a><a class="active page_link next" href="/books/n/webvision/eyeevolution/" title="Next page in this title">Next ></a></div></div></div></div>
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<div xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"></div><div class="portlet"><div class="portlet_head"><div class="portlet_title"><h3><span>Views</span></h3></div><a name="Shutter" sid="1" href="#" class="portlet_shutter" title="Show/hide content" remembercollapsed="true" pgsec_name="PDF_download" id="Shutter"></a></div><div class="portlet_content"><ul xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="simple-list"><li><a href="/books/NBK11556/?report=reader">PubReader</a></li><li><a href="/books/NBK11556/?report=printable">Print View</a></li><li><a data-jig="ncbidialog" href="#_ncbi_dlg_citbx_NBK11556" data-jigconfig="width:400,modal:true">Cite this Page</a><div id="_ncbi_dlg_citbx_NBK11556" style="display:none" title="Cite this Page"><div class="bk_tt">Kolb H. Facts and Figures Concerning the Human Retina. 2005 May 1 [Updated 2007 Jul 5]. In: Kolb H, Fernandez E, Jones B, et al., editors. Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System [Internet]. Salt Lake City (UT): University of Utah Health Sciences Center; 1995-. <span class="bk_cite_avail"></span></div></div></li><li><a href="/books/NBK11556/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK11556.pdf">PDF version of this page</a> (1.5M)</li><li><a href="/books/n/webvision/pdf/">PDF version of this title</a> (235M)</li></ul></div></div><div class="portlet"><div class="portlet_head"><div class="portlet_title"><h3><span>In this Page</span></h3></div><a name="Shutter" sid="1" href="#" class="portlet_shutter" title="Show/hide content" remembercollapsed="true" pgsec_name="page-toc" id="Shutter"></a></div><div class="portlet_content"><ul xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="simple-list"><li><a href="#ch38facts.Size_of_the_Retina" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Size of the Retina</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Size_of_Optic_Nerve_" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Size of Optic Nerve Head or Disc</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Degrees_and_Distance" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Degrees and Distance in Micometers</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Foveal_Position" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Foveal Position</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts._Cross_Diameter_of_th" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Cross Diameter of the Macula</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts._Cross_Diameter_of_th_1" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Cross Diameter of the Central Fovea from Foveal Rim to Foveal Rim</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Cross_Diameter_of_Ce" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Cross Diameter of Central Rod-free Area</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Vertical_Thickness_o" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Vertical Thickness of the Fovea from Inner Limiting Membrane (ILM) to ELM</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Central_Region_of_Fo" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Central Region of Fovea Where There Are No Cone Pedicles</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Length_of_Foveal_Axo" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Length of Foveal Axons (Henle Fibers)</a></li><li><a href="#A4438" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Vertical Thickness of the Retina in Different Areas</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Age_When_Fovea_Is_Fu" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Age When Fovea Is Fully Developed</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Highest_Density_of_C" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Highest Density of Cones at Center of the Fovea (50 × 50
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μm)</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts._Total_Number_of_Cone" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Total Number of Cones in Fovea</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts._Total_Number_of_Cone_1" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Total Number of Cones in the Retina</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Total_Number_of_Rods" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Total Number of Rods in the Retina</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Rod_Distribution" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Rod Distribution</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Number_of_Axons_in_t" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Number of Axons in the Optic Nerve</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Number_of_Cones_to_G" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Number of Cones to Ganglion Cells in the Fovea</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Number_of_Cones_Reti" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Number of Cones/Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cell (RPE)</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Number_of_Rods_Retin" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Number of Rods/Retinal Epithelial Cell (RPE)</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Number_of_Neural_and" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Number of Neural and Glial Types in the Retina</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Useful_Units_in_Visi" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Useful Units in Vision Science</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.Image_Formation" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Image Formation</a></li><li><a href="#ch38facts.References" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">References</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="portlet"><div class="portlet_head"><div class="portlet_title"><h3><span>Related Items in Bookshelf</span></h3></div><a name="Shutter" sid="1" href="#" class="portlet_shutter" title="Show/hide content" remembercollapsed="true" pgsec_name="source-links" id="Shutter"></a></div><div class="portlet_content"><ul xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="simple-list"><li><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?term=%22reference%20works%22%5BResource%20Type%5D" ref="pagearea=source-links&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">All Reference Works</a></li><li><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?term="textbooks"%5BResource%20Type%5D" ref="pagearea=source-links&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">All Textbooks</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="portlet"><div class="portlet_head"><div class="portlet_title"><h3><span>Related information</span></h3></div><a name="Shutter" sid="1" href="#" class="portlet_shutter" title="Show/hide content" remembercollapsed="true" pgsec_name="discovery_db_links" id="Shutter"></a></div><div class="portlet_content"><ul><li class="brieflinkpopper"><a class="brieflinkpopperctrl" href="/books/?Db=pmc&DbFrom=books&Cmd=Link&LinkName=books_pmc_refs&IdsFromResult=1653796" ref="log$=recordlinks">PMC</a><div class="brieflinkpop offscreen_noflow">PubMed Central citations</div></li><li class="brieflinkpopper"><a class="brieflinkpopperctrl" href="/books/?Db=pubmed&DbFrom=books&Cmd=Link&LinkName=books_pubmed_refs&IdsFromResult=1653796" ref="log$=recordlinks">PubMed</a><div class="brieflinkpop offscreen_noflow">Links to PubMed</div></li></ul></div></div><div class="portlet"><div class="portlet_head"><div class="portlet_title"><h3><span>Similar articles in PubMed</span></h3></div><a name="Shutter" sid="1" href="#" class="portlet_shutter" title="Show/hide content" remembercollapsed="true" pgsec_name="PBooksDiscovery_RA" id="Shutter"></a></div><div class="portlet_content"><ul><li class="brieflinkpopper two_line"><a class="brieflinkpopperctrl" href="/pubmed/38812762" ref="ordinalpos=1&linkpos=1&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed">Socio-demographic Determinants of Filipino Consumers Reading Food Product Labels and Nutrition Facts: Findings from the 2018-2019 ENNS.</a><span class="source">[Acta Med Philipp. 2024]</span><div class="brieflinkpop offscreen_noflow">Socio-demographic Determinants of Filipino Consumers Reading Food Product Labels and Nutrition Facts: Findings from the 2018-2019 ENNS.<div class="brieflinkpopdesc"><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="author">Javier CA, Capanzana MV, Gohilde SS. </em><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="cit">Acta Med Philipp. 2024; 58(8):92-100. Epub 2024 May 15.</em></div></div></li><li class="brieflinkpopper two_line"><a class="brieflinkpopperctrl" href="/pubmed/38749430" ref="ordinalpos=1&linkpos=2&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed">Instructions for meaningful figures in radiological research publications.</a><span class="source">[Rofo. 2025]</span><div class="brieflinkpop offscreen_noflow">Instructions for meaningful figures in radiological research publications.<div class="brieflinkpopdesc"><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="author">Pape LJ, Hambach J, Bannas P. </em><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="cit">Rofo. 2025 Jan; 197(1):26-33. 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