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<div class="pre-content"><div><div class="bk_prnt"><p class="small">NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.</p><p>Kolb H, Fernandez E, Jones B, et al., editors. Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System [Internet]. Salt Lake City (UT): University of Utah Health Sciences Center; 1995-. </p></div><div class="iconblock clearfix whole_rhythm no_top_margin bk_noprnt"><a class="img_link icnblk_img" title="Table of Contents Page" href="/books/n/webvision/"><img class="source-thumb" src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-webvision-lrg.png" alt="Cover of Webvision" height="100px" width="80px" /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt eight_col"><h2>Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System [Internet].</h2><a data-jig="ncbitoggler" href="#__NBK11534_dtls__">Show details</a><div style="display:none" class="ui-widget" id="__NBK11534_dtls__"><div>Kolb H, Fernandez E, Jones B, et al., editors.</div><div>Salt Lake City (UT): <a href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/" ref="pagearea=page-banner&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher">University of Utah Health Sciences Center</a>; 1995-.</div></div><div class="half_rhythm"><ul class="inline_list"><li style="margin-right:1em"><a class="bk_cntns" href="/books/n/webvision/">Contents</a></li></ul></div><div class="bk_noprnt"><form method="get" action="/books/n/webvision/" id="bk_srch"><div class="bk_search"><label for="bk_term" class="offscreen_noflow">Search term</label><input type="text" title="Search this book" id="bk_term" name="term" value="" data-jig="ncbiclearbutton" /> <input type="submit" class="jig-ncbibutton" value="Search this book" submit="false" style="padding: 0.1em 0.4em;" /></div></form></div></div><div class="icnblk_cntnt two_col"><div class="pagination bk_noprnt"><a class="active page_link prev" href="/books/n/webvision/A110/" title="Previous page in this title">< Prev</a><a class="active page_link next" href="/books/n/webvision/A34/" title="Next page in this title">Next ></a></div></div></div></div></div>
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<div class="main-content lit-style" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/CreativeWork"><div class="meta-content fm-sec"><h1 id="_NBK11534_"><span class="title" itemprop="name">Gross Anatomy of the Eye</span></h1><p class="contrib-group"><span itemprop="author">Helga E. Kolb</span>, PhD.</p><a data-jig="ncbitoggler" href="#__NBK11534_ai__" style="border:0;text-decoration:none">Author Information and Affiliations</a><div style="display:none" class="ui-widget" id="__NBK11534_ai__"><p class="contrib-group"><h4>Authors</h4><span itemprop="author">Helga E. Kolb</span>, PhD<sup><img src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/corrauth.gif" alt="corresponding author" /></sup><sup>1</sup><sup>,<a href="#A5.Tc.an1" class="bk_pop">*</a></sup>.</p><h4>Affiliations</h4><div class="affiliation"><sup>1</sup> John A. Moran Eye Center, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City<div><span class="email-label">Email: </span><a href="mailto:dev@null" data-email="ude.hatu.liamu@2878200u" class="oemail">ude.hatu.liamu@2878200u</a></div></div><div><sup><img src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/corrauth.gif" alt="corresponding author" /></sup>Corresponding author.</div></div><p class="small">Created: <span itemprop="datePublished">May 1, 2005</span>; Last Update: <span itemprop="dateModified">October 10, 2024</span>.</p></div><div class="jig-ncbiinpagenav body-content whole_rhythm" data-jigconfig="allHeadingLevels: ['h2'],smoothScroll: false" itemprop="text"><div id="A5.Abstract" itemprop="description"><h2 id="_A5_Abstract_">Abstract</h2><p>The vertebrate eye is composed of easily recognized structures such as pupil and iris, and other internal structures only seen with specialized medical equipment. In this chapter we provide the images and nomenclature describing eye structures, including eye muscles. There is also a brief description of how these structures develop in the first years of life.</p></div><div id="A5.Overview"><h2 id="_A5_Overview_">Overview</h2><p>When looking into someone's eyes, we can easily see several concentric structures (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F1/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA5F1" rid-ob="figobA5F1">Figure 1</a>):</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA5F1" co-legend-rid="figlgndA5F1"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F1/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 1. " class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA5F1" rid-ob="figobA5F1"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image001.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image001.jpg" alt="Figure 1. " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA5F1"><h4 id="A5.F1"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F1/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA5F1">Figure 1. </a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">View of the human eye </p></div></div><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A black-looking aperture, <b>the pupil</b>, that allows light to enter the eye (it appears dark because of the absorbing pigments in the retina).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A colored circular muscle<b>, the iris,</b> which is beautifully pigmented giving us our eye’s color (the central aperture of the iris is the pupil) (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F1/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA5F1" rid-ob="figobA5F1">Figure 1</a>). This circular muscle controls the size of the pupil so that, depending on conditions, more or less light is allowed to enter the eye. Eye color, or more correctly, iris color is due to variable amounts of eumelanin (brown/black melanins) and pheomelanin (red/yellow melanins) produced by melanocytes. More of the former is in brown eyed people and more of the latter in blue and green-eyed people. The Melanocortin-1 Receptor Gene (MC1R) is a regulator of eumelanin production and is located on chromosome 16q24.3. Point mutations in the MC1R gene will affect melanogenesis. The presence of point mutations in the MC1R gene alleles is a common feature in light skinned and blue/green eyed people (<a class="bk_pop" href="#A5.REF.1">1</a>, <a class="bk_pop" href="#A5.REF.2">2</a>).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A transparent external membrane<b>, the cornea,</b> covers both the pupil and the iris. This is the first and most powerful lens of the optical system of the eye and allows, together with <b>the crystalline lens</b> the production of a sharp image at the retinal photoreceptor level.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The “white of the eye”<b>, the sclera,</b> forms part of the supporting wall of the eyeball. The sclera is continuous with the cornea. Furthermore, this external covering of the eye is in continuity with the dura of the central nervous system.</div></li></ul></div><div id="A5.The_Eyeball"><h2 id="_A5_The_Eyeball_">The Eyeball</h2><p>When we remove the eye from the orbit, we can see that the eye is a slightly asymmetrical sphere with an approximate sagittal diameter or length of 24 to 25 mm and a transverse diameter of 24 mm. It has a volume of about 6.5 cc.</p><p>A cross-sectional view of the eye shows (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F2/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA5F2" rid-ob="figobA5F2">Figure 2</a>):</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA5F2" co-legend-rid="figlgndA5F2"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F2/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 2. " class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA5F2" rid-ob="figobA5F2"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image002.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image002.jpg" alt="Figure 2. " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA5F2"><h4 id="A5.F2"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F2/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA5F2">Figure 2. </a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Sagittal section of the adult human eye </p></div></div><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Three different layers</b>:</div><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The external layer, formed by the <b>sclera and cornea</b>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The intermediate layer, divided into two sections: anterior (<b>iris</b> and <b>ciliary body</b>) and posterior (<b>choroid</b>).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The internal layer, or the sensory part of the eye, <b>the retina</b>.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Three chambers of fluid</b>:</div><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The <b>Anterior chamber</b> (between cornea and iris)</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The <b>Posterior chamber</b> (between iris, zonule fibers and lens)</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The <b>Vitreous chamber</b> (between the lens and the retina).</div></li></ul></li></ul><p>The first two chambers are filled with aqueous humor, whereas the vitreous chamber is filled with a more viscous fluid, the vitreous humor.</p><p>The sagittal section of the eye also reveals <b>the lens</b>, which is a transparent body located behind the iris. The lens is suspended by ligaments (called zonule fibers) attached to the anterior portion of the ciliary body. The contraction or relaxation of these ligaments, as a consequence of ciliary muscle actions, changes the shape of the lens, a process called <b>accommodation</b> that allows us to form a sharp image on the retina. Light rays are focused through the transparent cornea and lens upon the retina. The central point for image focus (the visual axis) in the human retina is the fovea. Here a maximally focused image initiates resolution of the finest detail and direct transmission of that detail to the brain for the higher operations needed for perception. Slightly more nasally than the visual axis is the optic axis projecting closer to the optic nerve head. The optic axis is the longest sagittal distance between the front or vertex of the cornea and the furthest posterior part of the eyeball. It is about the optic axis that the eye is rotated by the eye muscles. Some vertebrate retinas have instead of a fovea, other specializations of the central retina, known as an area centralis or a visual streak.</p></div><div id="A5.Extraocular_muscles"><h2 id="_A5_Extraocular_muscles_">Extraocular muscles</h2><p>Each eyeball is held in position in the orbital cavity by various ligaments, muscles and fascial expansions that surround it (see <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F3/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA5F3" rid-ob="figobA5F3">Figure 3</a>). Inserted into the sclera are three pairs of muscles (6 muscles altogether). Two pairs are <b>rectus muscles</b> running straight to the bony orbit of the skull orthogonal to each other (the <b>superior rectus</b>, the <b>inferior rectus</b>, the <b>lateral rectus</b> and the <b>medial rectus</b> muscles). A further pair of muscles, the <b>oblique muscles</b> (<b>superior oblique</b> and <b>inferior oblique</b>) are angled as the name implies obliquely. These muscles, named <b>extraocular muscles</b> rotate the eyeball in the orbits and allow the image to be focused at all times on the fovea of central retina.</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA5F3" co-legend-rid="figlgndA5F3"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F3/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 3. " class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA5F3" rid-ob="figobA5F3"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image003.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image003.jpg" alt="Figure 3. " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA5F3"><h4 id="A5.F3"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F3/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA5F3">Figure 3. </a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">CT Horizontal transverse scan </p></div></div></div><div id="A5.Development_of_the_eye"><h2 id="_A5_Development_of_the_eye_">Development of the eye</h2><p>The retina is a part of the central nervous system and an ideal region of the vertebrate brain to study, because like other regions of the central nervous system, <b>it derives from the neural tube</b>. The retina is formed during development of the embryo from <b>optic vesicles</b> outpouching from two sides of the developing neural tube. The primordial optic vesicles fold back in upon themselves to form the <b>optic cup</b> with the inside of the cup becoming the retina and the outside remaining a single monolayer of epithelium known as the retinal pigment epithelium (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F4/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA5F4" rid-ob="figobA5F4">Figure 4</a>, element 3). Initially both walls of the optic cup are one cell thick, but the cells of the inner wall divide to form a neuroepithelial layer many cells thick: <b>the retina.</b></p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA5F4" co-legend-rid="figlgndA5F4"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F4/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 4. " class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA5F4" rid-ob="figobA5F4"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image004.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image004.jpg" alt="Figure 4. " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA5F4"><h4 id="A5.F4"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F4/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA5F4">Figure 4. </a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Development of the eye </p></div></div><p>
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<a href="/books/NBK11534/bin/anatomymv1-movie1.mp4">
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<b>CLICK HERE to see a Morph of development</b>
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</a>
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<a href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/movies/develop.mov" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri"> (Quicktime movie)</a>
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</p><p>Sensory retinal development begins as early as the optic vesicle stage, with the migration of cell nuclei to the inner surface of the sensory retina. Additional retinal development is characterized by the formation of further layers arising from <b>cell division and subsequent cell migration</b>. The retina develops in an inside to outside manner: ganglion cells are formed first and photoreceptors cells, particularly the rod cells, become fully mature last.</p><p>Further changes in retinal morphology are accomplished by simultaneous formation of multiple complex intercellular connections. Thus by 5 months of gestation in humans (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F5/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA5F5" rid-ob="figobA5F5">Figure 5</a>) most of the basic neural connections of the retina have been established (<a class="bk_pop" href="#A5.REF.3">3</a>). The functional synapses are made almost exclusively in the two plexiform layers and the perikarya of the nerve cells are distributed in the three nuclear layers.</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA5F5" co-legend-rid="figlgndA5F5"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F5/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 5. " class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA5F5" rid-ob="figobA5F5"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image005.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image005.jpg" alt="Figure 5. " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA5F5"><h4 id="A5.F5"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F5/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA5F5">Figure 5. </a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Schema of the layers of the developing retina around 5 months’ gestation (Modified from Odgen,1989) </p></div></div><p>Photoreceptor cell maturation begins with the formation of outer segments (OS) containing visual pigment within multiple infoldings of the plasma membrane of each cell. Outer segment formation proceeds, and the eye becomes sensitive to light at about 7 months gestation.</p><p>The final portion of the human sensory retina to mature is the fovea, where the ganglion cell layer thickening begins during mid-gestation (<a href="/books/n/webvision/Archetecture_Fovea/">see Webvision chapter ‘The Architecture of the Human Fovea</a>’). The outer nuclear layer is also wider here than elsewhere in the retina and consists almost entirely of developing cone cells. The ganglion cell nuclei migrate radially outwards in a ring, leaving the fovea free of ganglion cell nuclei. Cell-cell attachments persist, however and foveal cone cells stretch their axons to accommodate the movement of ganglion cells. Foveal development continues with cell rearrangements and alteration in cone shape until about 4 years after birth (<a class="bk_pop" href="#A5.REF.4">4</a>, <a class="bk_pop" href="#A5.REF.5">5</a>) .</p><p>Surface membranes cover the optic cup and develop into lens, iris and cornea separating the three chambers of fluid filled with aqueous and vitreous humors (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F6/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA5F6" rid-ob="figobA5F6">Figure 6</a>).</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA5F6" co-legend-rid="figlgndA5F6"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F6/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 6. " class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA5F6" rid-ob="figobA5F6"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image006.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image006.jpg" alt="Figure 6. " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA5F6"><h4 id="A5.F6"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F6/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA5F6">Figure 6. </a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Sagittal section of the adult human eye </p></div></div></div><div id="A5.Summary"><h2 id="_A5_Summary_">Summary</h2><p>In the following chapters, we will describe in greater detail the individual nerve cells that make up the retina and the functional pathways into which these neurons are organized. Eventually, we will progress to a stage where we can appreciate the summary diagrams below (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F7/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA5F7" rid-ob="figobA5F7">Figure 7</a>, <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F8/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA5F8" rid-ob="figobA5F8">Figure 8</a>) that show the functional wiring of two well-understood mammalian retinas, namely cat and primate retinas.</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA5F7" co-legend-rid="figlgndA5F7"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F7/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 7. " class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA5F7" rid-ob="figobA5F7"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image007.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image007.jpg" alt="Figure 7. " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA5F7"><h4 id="A5.F7"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F7/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA5F7">Figure 7. </a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Diagrammatic scheme of the cat retina </p></div></div><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA5F8" co-legend-rid="figlgndA5F8"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F8/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 8. " class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA5F8" rid-ob="figobA5F8"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image008.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11534/bin/A5-Image008.jpg" alt="Figure 8. . Scheme of the human retina." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA5F8"><h4 id="A5.F8"><a href="/books/NBK11534/figure/A5.F8/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA5F8">Figure 8. </a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Scheme of the human retina. </p></div></div></div><div id="A5.About_the_Author"><h2 id="_A5_About_the_Author_">About the Author</h2><p><b>Helga Kolb</b>, <b>Ph.D.</b> is the originator and chief editor of Webvision. She was born in England and educated with degrees from Bristol University. Helga has been in eye research since 1961, at first doing electrophysiology at the Institute of Ophthalmology, Moorfields Eye Hospital, and then emigrating to the USA. In John Dowling’s lab at the Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, along with Brian Boycott, she continued work in anatomy of the retina concentrating on understanding the neurons and wiring of the monkey retina. Later at NIH in Bethesda<b>,</b> she collaborated with Peter Gouras and Ralph Nelson on joint physiology and electron microscopy of retinal neurons to understand the connections of cell types involved in light, dark and color pathways in cat and monkey retinas. She joined the faculty at the University of Utah Medical School, Salt Lake City in 1979 and is currently a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science at the John Moran Eye Center.</p></div><div id="A5.References"><h2 id="_A5_References_">References</h2><dl class="temp-labeled-list"><dt>1.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="A5.REF.1">Valverde, P., E.
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Healy, I.
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Jackson, J.L.
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Rees, and A.J.
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Thody, Variants of the melanocyte–stimulating hormone receptor gene are associated with red hair and fair skin in humans.
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Nature genetics.
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1995; 11(3):328-330.
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[<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7581459" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 7581459</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>2.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="A5.REF.2">Metzelaar-Blok, J.A., J.A.
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ter Huurne, H.M.H.
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Hurks, J.E.
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Keunen, M.J.
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Jager, and N.A.
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Gruis, Characterization of melanocortin-1 receptor gene variants in uveal melanoma patients.
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Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.
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2001; 42(9):1951-1954.
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[<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11481256" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11481256</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>3.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="A5.REF.3">Mann, I., <em>The development of the human eye</em>. 1928, Cambridge: The University Press.</div></dd><dt>4.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="A5.REF.4">Hendrickson, A.E. and C.
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Yuodelis, The morphological development of the human fovea.
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Ophthalmology.
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1984; 91(6):603-12.
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[<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6462623" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 6462623</span></a>]</div></dd><dt>5.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="A5.REF.5">Curcio, C.A. and A.E.
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Hendrickson, Organization and development of the primate photoreceptor mosaic.
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Progress in retinal research.
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1991; 10:89-120.</div></dd><dt>6.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="A5.REF.6">Ogden, T.E. and S.J. Ryan, <em>Retina. 1. Basic science and inherited retinal disease</em>. 1994: Elsevier, Mosby.</div></dd></dl></div><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dt>*</dt><dd><div id="A5.Tc.an1"><p class="no_top_margin">
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<a href="#A5.About_the_Author">About the author</a>
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</p></div></dd></dl></div><div id="bk_toc_contnr"></div></div></div>
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<div class="post-content"><div><div class="half_rhythm"><a href="/books/about/copyright/">Copyright</a>: © 2025 Webvision .<p class="small">All copyright for chapters belongs to the individual authors who created them. However, for non-commercial, academic purposes, images and content from the chapters portion of Webvision may be used with a non-exclusive rights under a Attribution, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Noncommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC) Creative Commons license</a>. Cite Webvision, http://webvision.med.utah.edu/ as the source. Commercial applications need to obtain license permission from the administrator of Webvision and are generally declined unless the copyright owner can/wants to donate or license material. Use online should be accompanied by a link back to the original source of the material. All imagery or content associated with blog posts belong to the authors of said posts, except where otherwise noted.</p></div><div class="small"><span class="label">Bookshelf ID: NBK11534</span><span class="label">PMID: <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21413392" title="PubMed record of this page" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">21413392</a></span></div><div style="margin-top:2em" class="bk_noprnt"><a class="bk_cntns" href="/books/n/webvision/">Contents</a><div class="pagination bk_noprnt"><a class="active page_link prev" href="/books/n/webvision/A110/" title="Previous page in this title">< Prev</a><a class="active page_link next" href="/books/n/webvision/A34/" title="Next page in this title">Next ></a></div></div></div></div>
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<div xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"></div><div class="portlet"><div class="portlet_head"><div class="portlet_title"><h3><span>Views</span></h3></div><a name="Shutter" sid="1" href="#" class="portlet_shutter" title="Show/hide content" remembercollapsed="true" pgsec_name="PDF_download" id="Shutter"></a></div><div class="portlet_content"><ul xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="simple-list"><li><a href="/books/NBK11534/?report=reader">PubReader</a></li><li><a href="/books/NBK11534/?report=printable">Print View</a></li><li><a data-jig="ncbidialog" href="#_ncbi_dlg_citbx_NBK11534" data-jigconfig="width:400,modal:true">Cite this Page</a><div id="_ncbi_dlg_citbx_NBK11534" style="display:none" title="Cite this Page"><div class="bk_tt">Kolb HE. Gross Anatomy of the Eye. 2005 May 1 [Updated 2024 Oct 10]. In: Kolb H, Fernandez E, Jones B, et al., editors. Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System [Internet]. 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<title>Twitter</title>
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<path class="st10" d="M159,99.1h-24V88.4c0-5,3.3-6.2,5.7-6.2h16.8V60l-24.4-0.1c-22.1,0-26.2,16.5-26.2,27.1v12.1H90v22.5h16.9 v67.5H135v-67.5h21.7L159,99.1z"></path>
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<li class="list-inline-item"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/NLMNIH" aria-label="Youtube" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1" x="0px" y="0px" viewBox="0 0 249 249" style="enable-background:new 0 0 249 249;" xml:space="preserve">
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<title>Youtube</title>
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<style type="text/css">
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.st4 {
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fill: none;
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stroke: #FFFFFF;
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</style>
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<circle class="st4" cx="124.2" cy="123.4" r="108.2"></circle>
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<path class="st5" d="M88.4,1037.4c-10.4,0-18.7,8.3-18.7,18.7v40.1c0,10.4,8.3,18.7,18.7,18.7h72.1c10.4,0,18.7-8.3,18.7-18.7 v-40.1c0-10.4-8.3-18.7-18.7-18.7H88.4z M115.2,1058.8l29.4,17.4l-29.4,17.4V1058.8z"></path>
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<p class="address_footer text-white">National Library of Medicine<br />
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<a href="https://www.google.com/maps/place/8600+Rockville+Pike,+Bethesda,+MD+20894/@38.9959508,-77.101021,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x89b7c95e25765ddb:0x19156f88b27635b8!8m2!3d38.9959508!4d-77.0988323" class="text-white" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">8600 Rockville Pike<br />
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Bethesda, MD 20894</a></p>
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<p><a href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/web_policies.html" class="text-white">Web Policies</a><br />
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<a href="https://www.nih.gov/institutes-nih/nih-office-director/office-communications-public-liaison/freedom-information-act-office" class="text-white">FOIA</a><br />
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<a href="https://www.hhs.gov/vulnerability-disclosure-policy/index.html" class="text-white" id="vdp">HHS Vulnerability Disclosure</a></p>
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<div class="col-lg-3 col-12 centered-lg">
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<p><a class="supportLink text-white" href="https://support.nlm.nih.gov/">Help</a><br />
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<a href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/accessibility.html" class="text-white">Accessibility</a><br />
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<a href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/careers/careers.html" class="text-white">Careers</a></p>
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<nav class="bottom-links">
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<a class="text-white" href="//www.nlm.nih.gov/">NLM</a>
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<li>
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<a class="text-white" href="https://www.nih.gov/">NIH</a>
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<a class="text-white" href="https://www.hhs.gov/">HHS</a>
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<a class="text-white" href="https://www.usa.gov/">USA.gov</a>
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