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<div class="pre-content"><div><div class="bk_prnt"><p class="small">NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.</p><p>PDQ Cancer Information Summaries [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US); 2002-. </p></div><div class="iconblock clearfix whole_rhythm no_top_margin bk_noprnt"><a class="img_link icnblk_img" title="Table of Contents Page" href="/books/n/pdqcis/"><img class="source-thumb" src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-pdqcis-lrg.png" alt="Cover of PDQ Cancer Information Summaries" height="100px" width="80px" /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt eight_col"><h2>PDQ Cancer Information Summaries [Internet].</h2><a data-jig="ncbitoggler" href="#__NBK65987_dtls__">Show details</a><div style="display:none" class="ui-widget" id="__NBK65987_dtls__"><div>Bethesda (MD): <a href="http://www.cancer.gov/" ref="pagearea=page-banner&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher">National Cancer Institute (US)</a>; 2002-.</div></div><div class="half_rhythm"></div><div class="bk_noprnt"><form method="get" action="/books/n/pdqcis/" id="bk_srch"><div class="bk_search"><label for="bk_term" class="offscreen_noflow">Search term</label><input type="text" title="Search this book" id="bk_term" name="term" value="" data-jig="ncbiclearbutton" /> <input type="submit" class="jig-ncbibutton" value="Search this book" submit="false" style="padding: 0.1em 0.4em;" /></div></form></div></div></div></div></div>
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<div class="main-content lit-style" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/CreativeWork"><div class="meta-content fm-sec"><h1 id="_NBK65987_"><span class="title" itemprop="name">Cancer Prevention Overview (PDQ®)</span></h1><div class="subtitle whole_rhythm">Patient Version</div><p class="contrib-group"><span itemprop="author">PDQ Screening and Prevention Editorial Board</span>.</p><p class="small">Published online: October 23, 2023.</p><p class="small">Created: <span itemprop="datePublished">June 22, 2009</span>.</p></div><div class="jig-ncbiinpagenav body-content whole_rhythm" data-jigconfig="allHeadingLevels: ['h2'],smoothScroll: false" itemprop="text"><div id="_abs_rndgid_" itemprop="description"><p id="CDR0000454520__373">This PDQ cancer information summary has current information about cancer prevention. It is meant to inform and help patients, families, and caregivers. It does not give formal guidelines or recommendations for making decisions about health care.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__374">Editorial Boards write the PDQ cancer information summaries and keep them up to date. These Boards are made up of experts in cancer treatment and other specialties related to cancer. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made when there is new information. The date on each summary ("Date Last Modified") is the date of the most recent change. The information in this patient summary was taken from the health professional version, which is reviewed regularly and updated as needed, by the PDQ Screening and Prevention Editorial Board.</p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__290"><h2 id="_CDR0000454520__290_">What Is Prevention?</h2><p id="CDR0000454520__291">Cancer prevention is action taken to lower the chance of getting cancer. In 2023, about 1.9 million people will be <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046450/" class="def">diagnosed</a> with cancer in the United States. In addition to the physical problems and emotional <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000454701/" class="def">distress</a> caused by cancer, the high costs of care are also a burden to patients, their families, and to the public. By preventing cancer, the number of new cases of cancer is lowered. Hopefully, this will reduce the burden of cancer and lower the number of deaths caused by cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__297">Cancer is not a single disease but a group of related diseases. Many things in our <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045693/" class="def">genes</a>, our lifestyle, and the environment around us may increase or decrease our risk of getting cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__292">Scientists are studying many different ways to help prevent cancer, including the following:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__293"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Ways to avoid or control things known to cause cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Changes in <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044660/" class="def">diet</a> and lifestyle.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Finding <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046220/" class="def">precancerous</a>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000651193/" class="def">conditions</a> early. Precancerous conditions are conditions that may become cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045487/" class="def">Chemoprevention</a> (medicines to treat a precancerous condition or to keep cancer from starting).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Risk-reducing surgery.</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__324"><h2 id="_CDR0000454520__324_">Carcinogenesis</h2><div id="CDR0000454520__324.kp" class="box"><h4><span class="title">Key Points for This Section</span></h4><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__325">Carcinogenesis is the process in which normal cells turn into cancer cells.</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__352">Changes (mutations) in genes occur during carcinogenesis.</a></div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__325"><h3>Carcinogenesis is the process in which normal cells turn into cancer cells.</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__327"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046487/" class="def">Carcinogenesis</a> is the series of steps that take place as a normal cell becomes a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045333/" class="def">cancer</a> cell. Cells are the smallest units of the body and they make up the body's tissues. Each cell contains <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045693/" class="def">genes</a> that guide the way the body grows, develops, and repairs itself. There are many genes that control whether a cell lives or dies, divides (multiplies), or takes on special functions, such as becoming a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000269443/" class="def">nerve cell</a> or a muscle cell.</p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__352"><h3>Changes (mutations) in genes occur during carcinogenesis.</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__354">Changes (<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046063/" class="def">mutations</a>) in genes can cause normal controls in cells to break down. When this happens, cells do not die when they should and new cells are produced when the body does not need them. The buildup of extra cells may cause a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000638197/" class="def">mass</a> (tumor) to form.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__355">Tumors can be <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046079/" class="def">benign</a> or <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045772/" class="def">malignant</a> (cancerous). Malignant tumor cells invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Benign tumor cells do not invade nearby tissues or spread.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000454520__199"><h2 id="_CDR0000454520__199_">Risk Factors</h2><div id="CDR0000454520__199.kp" class="box"><h4><span class="title">Key Points for This Section</span></h4><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__204">Factors that are known to increase the risk of cancer</a></div><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__334">Cigarette smoking and tobacco use</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__214">Infections</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__217">Radiation</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__369">Immunosuppressive medicines after organ transplant</a></div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__220">Factors that may affect the risk of cancer</a></div><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__275">Diet</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__307">Alcohol</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__223">Physical activity</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__226">Obesity</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__375">Diabetes</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__356">Environmental risk factors</a></div></li></ul></li></ul></div><p id="CDR0000454520__201"> Scientists study <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045873/" class="def">risk factors</a> and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000439422/" class="def">protective factors</a> to find ways to prevent new <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045333/" class="def">cancers</a> from starting. Anything that increases your chance of developing cancer is called a cancer risk factor; anything that decreases your chance of developing cancer is called a cancer protective factor.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__202">Some risk factors for cancer can be avoided, but many cannot. For
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example, both smoking and inheriting certain <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045693/" class="def">genes</a> are risk factors for some
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types of cancer, but only smoking can be avoided. Risk factors that a person can control are called modifiable risk factors.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__302">Many other factors in our environment, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044660/" class="def">diet</a>, and lifestyle may cause or <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000439419/" class="def">prevent</a> cancer. This summary reviews only the major cancer risk factors and protective factors that can be controlled or changed to reduce the risk of cancer. Risk factors that are not described in the summary include certain <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000476620/" class="def">sexual</a> behaviors, the use of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046076/" class="def">estrogen</a>, and being exposed to certain substances at work or to certain <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000643008/" class="def">chemicals</a>.</p><div id="CDR0000454520__204"><h3>Factors that are known to increase the risk of cancer</h3><div id="CDR0000454520__334"><h4>Cigarette smoking and tobacco use</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__336"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000439432/" class="def">Tobacco</a> use is strongly linked to an increased risk for many kinds of cancer. Smoking cigarettes is the leading cause of the following types of cancer:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__337"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046757/" class="def">Acute myelogenous leukemia</a> (AML).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444968/" class="def">Bladder cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444973/" class="def">Cervical cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444989/" class="def">Esophageal cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444995/" class="def">Kidney cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445043/" class="def">Lung cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000641672/" class="def">Oral cavity cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044521/" class="def">Pancreatic cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445087/" class="def">Stomach cancer</a>.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000454520__338"> Not smoking or quitting smoking lowers the risk of getting cancer and dying from cancer. Scientists believe that cigarette smoking causes about 30% of all cancer deaths in the United States. </p><p id="CDR0000454520__339">See the following <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044271/" class="def">PDQ</a> summaries for more information:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__340"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062825/">Lung Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000258019/">Lung Cancer Screening</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062889/">Cigarette Smoking: Health Risks and How to Quit</a>
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</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__214"><h4>Infections</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__216">Certain <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045941/" class="def">viruses</a> and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044123/" class="def">bacteria</a> are able to cause cancer. Examples of cancer-causing viruses and bacteria include:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__237"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045714/" class="def">Human papillomavirus</a> (HPV) increases the risk for cancers of the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046133/" class="def">cervix</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000257215/" class="def">penis</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046646/" class="def">vagina</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046523/" class="def">anus</a>, and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046024/" class="def">oropharynx</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046146/" class="def">Hepatitis B</a> and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044139/" class="def">hepatitis C</a> viruses increase the risk for <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044242/" class="def">liver cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045684/" class="def">Epstein-Barr virus</a> increases the risk for <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045203/" class="def">Burkitt lymphoma</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><i><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045706/" class="def">Helicobacter pylori</a></i> increases the risk for <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000454513/" class="def">gastric cancer</a>.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000454520__238">Two <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045938/" class="def">vaccines</a> to prevent infection by cancer-causing agents have been developed and approved by the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000454785/" class="def">US Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). One is a vaccine to prevent infection with hepatitis B virus. The other protects against infection with strains of human papillomavirus (HPV) that cause <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444973/" class="def">cervical cancer</a>. Scientists continue to work on vaccines against infections that cause cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__239">See the following <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044271/" class="def">PDQ</a> summaries for more information:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__240"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/causes-risk-prevention" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Cervical Cancer Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/screening" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Cervical Cancer Screening</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/types/liver/what-is-liver-cancer/causes-risk-factors" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Liver Cancer Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/types/stomach/causes-risk-factors" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Stomach Cancer Causes and Risk Factors</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000593570/">Oral Cavity, Oropharyngeal, Hypopharyngeal, and Laryngeal Cancers Prevention</a>
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</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__217"><h4>Radiation</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__241">Being exposed to <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045072/" class="def">radiation</a> is a known cause of cancer. There are two main types of radiation linked with an increased risk of cancer:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__242"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045934/" class="def">Ultraviolet radiation</a> from sunlight: This is the main cause of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046261/" class="def">nonmelanoma skin cancers</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000430698/" class="def">Ionizing radiation</a> including: <dl id="CDR0000454520__363" class="temp-labeled-list"><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Medical radiation from tests to <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046450/" class="def">diagnose</a> cancer such as <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045944/" class="def">x-rays</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046033/" class="def">CT scans</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046405/" class="def">fluoroscopy</a>, and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044552/" class="def">nuclear medicine scans</a>.</p></dd><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046554/" class="def">Radon gas</a> in our homes.</p></dd></dl>
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</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000454520__364">Scientists believe that <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000430698/" class="def">ionizing radiation</a> causes <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045343/" class="def">leukemia</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445091/" class="def">thyroid cancer</a>, and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444971/" class="def">breast cancer</a> in women. Ionizing radiation may also be linked to <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045795/" class="def">myeloma</a> and cancers of the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000270740/" class="def">lung</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046604/" class="def">stomach</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046462/" class="def">colon</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046408/" class="def">esophagus</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046501/" class="def">bladder</a>, and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046687/" class="def">ovary</a>. Being exposed to radiation from diagnostic x-rays increases the risk of cancer in patients and x-ray <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000638188/" class="def">technicians</a>. Diagnostic radiation in children and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000776825/" class="def">adolescents</a> has been linked with a higher risk of cancers at a young age.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__365">The growing use of CT scans over the last 20 years has increased exposure to ionizing radiation. The risk of cancer also increases with the number of CT scans a patient has and the radiation <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044664/" class="def">dose</a> used each time.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__243">See the following PDQ summaries for more information:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__244"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000257994/">Breast Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000257995/">Breast Cancer Screening</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062802/">Skin Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062825/">Lung Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__369"><h4>Immunosuppressive medicines after organ transplant</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__371"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000492104/" class="def">Immunosuppressive medicines</a> are used after an organ has been <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046631/" class="def">transplanted</a> from one person to another. These medicines stop an organ that has been transplanted from being rejected. These medicines decrease the body's <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045722/" class="def">immune response</a> to help keep the organ from being rejected. Immunosuppressive medicines are linked to an increased risk of cancer because they lower the body's ability to keep cancer from forming. The risk of cancer, especially cancer caused by a virus, is higher in the first 6 months after organ transplant, but the risk lasts for many years.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000454520__220"><h3>Factors that may affect the risk of cancer</h3><div id="CDR0000454520__275"><h4>Diet</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__245">The foods that you eat on a regular basis make up your <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044660/" class="def">diet</a>. Diet is being studied as a risk factor for cancer. It is hard to study the effects of diet on cancer because a person's diet includes foods that may protect against cancer and foods that may increase the risk of cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__246">It is also hard for people who take part in the studies to keep track of what they eat over a long period of time. This may explain why studies have different results about how diet affects the risk of cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__305">Some studies have shown that a diet high in fat, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046092/" class="def">proteins</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044651/" class="def">calories</a>, and red meat increases the risk of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444983/" class="def">colorectal cancer</a>, but other studies have not shown this.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__306">It is not known if a diet low in fat and high in <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046401/" class="def">fiber</a>, fruits, and vegetables lowers the risk of colorectal cancer. </p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__307"><h4>Alcohol</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__309">Studies have shown that drinking <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000463134/" class="def">alcohol</a> is linked to an increased risk of the following types of cancers:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__310"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445073/" class="def">Oral cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444989/" class="def">Esophageal cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Breast cancer. </div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Colorectal cancer (in men).</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000454520__314">Drinking alcohol may also increase the risk of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044242/" class="def">liver cancer</a> and female colorectal cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__311">See the following PDQ summaries for more information:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__312"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000257994/">Breast Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000258007/">Colorectal Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062825/">Lung Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062888/">Esophageal Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000593570/"> Oral Cavity, Oropharyngeal, Hypopharyngeal, and Laryngeal Cancers Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/types/liver/what-is-liver-cancer/causes-risk-factors" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Liver Cancer Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention</a>
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</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__223"><h4>Physical activity</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__250">Studies show that people who are physically active have a lower risk of certain cancers than those who are not. It is not known if physical activity itself is the reason for this.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__251">Some studies show that physical activity protects against <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045269/" class="def">postmenopausal</a> breast cancer and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444987/" class="def">endometrial cancer</a>.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__252">See the following PDQ summaries for more information:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__253"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000257994/">Breast Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000258007/">Colorectal Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000258009/">Endometrial Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__226"><h4>Obesity</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__254"> Studies show that <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000527371/" class="def">obesity</a> is linked to a higher risk of the following types of cancer:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__313"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Postmenopausal breast cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Colorectal cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Endometrial cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div> Esophageal cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046325/" class="def">Kidney</a> cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044074/" class="def">Pancreatic</a> cancer.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000454520__256">Some studies show that obesity is also a risk factor for <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000446566/" class="def">cancer of the gallbladder</a> and liver cancer. </p><p id="CDR0000454520__284">Studies have shown that people who lose weight decrease their risk of these cancers.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__258">See the following PDQ summaries for more information:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__257"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000257994/">Breast Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000258007/">Colorectal Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000258009/">Endometrial Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062825/">Lung Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__375"><h4>Diabetes</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__379">Some studies show that having <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044911/" class="def">diabetes</a> may slightly increase the risk of having the following types of cancer:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__380"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Bladder cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Breast cancer in women.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Colorectal cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Endometrial cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Liver cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Lung cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Oral cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000446523/" class="def">Oropharyngeal cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445074/" class="def">Ovarian cancer</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Pancreatic cancer.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000454520__383">Diabetes and cancer share some of the same risk factors. These risk factors include the following:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__388"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Being older.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Having obesity.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Smoking.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Not eating a healthy diet.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Not exercising.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000454520__386">Because diabetes and cancer share these risk factors, it is hard to know whether the risk of cancer is increased more by diabetes or by these risk factors.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__387">Studies are being done to see how medicine that is used to treat diabetes affects cancer risk.</p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__356"><h4>Environmental risk factors</h4><p id="CDR0000454520__360">Being exposed to <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000643008/" class="def">chemicals</a> and other substances in the environment has been linked to some cancers:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__361"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Links between air pollution and cancer risk have been found. These include links between lung cancer and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000538647/" class="def">secondhand tobacco smoke</a>, outdoor air pollution, and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046528/" class="def">asbestos</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Drinking water that contains a large amount of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044303/" class="def">arsenic</a> has been linked to <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445084/" class="def">skin</a>, bladder, and lung cancers. </div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000454520__359">Studies have been done to see if <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000411385/" class="def">pesticides</a> and other pollutants increase the risk of cancer. The results of those studies have been unclear because other factors can change the results of the studies.</p></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000454520__229"><h2 id="_CDR0000454520__229_">Interventions That Are Known to Lower Cancer Risk</h2><div id="CDR0000454520__229.kp" class="box"><h4><span class="title">Key Points for This Section</span></h4><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__259">Chemoprevention is being studied in people who have a high risk of developing cancer.</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__394">Studies have shown that weight loss surgery lowers cancer risk.</a></div></li></ul></div><p id="CDR0000454520__285">An intervention is a treatment or action taken to prevent or treat disease, or improve health in other ways. Many studies are being done to find ways to keep <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045333/" class="def">cancer</a> from starting or coming back.</p><div id="CDR0000454520__259"><h3>Chemoprevention is being studied in people who have a high risk of developing cancer.</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__231"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045487/" class="def">Chemoprevention</a> is the use of substances to lower the risk of cancer, or keep it from recurring. The substances may be natural or made in the laboratory. Some chemopreventive agents are tested in people who are at high risk for a certain type of cancer. The risk may be because of a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046220/" class="def">precancerous</a> condition, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000302456/" class="def">family history</a>, or lifestyle factors.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__390">Taking one of the following agents may lower the risk of cancer:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__389"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044229/" class="def">Selective estrogen receptor modulators</a> (SERMS) such as <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000509341/" class="def">tamoxifen</a> or <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000572250/" class="def">raloxifene</a> have been shown to reduce the risk of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444971/" class="def">breast cancer</a> in women at high risk. SERMS may cause <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046580/" class="def">side effects</a>, such as <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000256567/" class="def">hot flashes</a>, so they are not often used for <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000439419/" class="def">prevention</a> of cancer. For more information, see <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000257994/">Breast Cancer Prevention</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045336/" class="def">Finasteride</a> has been shown to lower the risk of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445079/" class="def">prostate cancer</a>. For more information, see <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062853/">Prostate Cancer Prevention</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044819/" class="def">COX-2 inhibitors</a> may prevent <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044237/" class="def">colon</a> and breast cancer. COX-2 inhibitors may cause heart problems. Because COX-2 inhibitors may cause heart problems there have not been many studies on their use to prevent cancer. For more information, see <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000258007/">Colorectal Cancer Prevention</a> and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000257994/">Breast Cancer Prevention</a>.</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__394"><h3>Studies have shown that weight loss surgery lowers cancer risk.</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__396">Weight loss surgery, also called <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000800818/" class="def">bariatric surgery</a>, is a procedure that people with obesity can have to lose weight and improve their overall health and quality of life. The surgery changes the anatomy of the stomach or changes the way the body absorbs nutrients. A person who undergoes this procedure will lose a lot of weight and as a result, will have a decreased risk of cancers that are linked to being overweight.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__397">See the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI website</a> for more information about cancer prevention.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000454520__260"><h2 id="_CDR0000454520__260_">Interventions That Are Not Known to Lower Cancer Risk</h2><div id="CDR0000454520__260.kp" class="box"><h4><span class="title">Key Points for This Section</span></h4><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__391">Aspirin has not been shown to prevent most cancers.</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__341">Vitamin and dietary supplements have not been shown to prevent cancer. </a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000454520__318">New ways to prevent cancer are being studied in clinical trials.</a></div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__391"><h3>Aspirin has not been shown to prevent most cancers.</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__393"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045176/" class="def">Aspirin</a> has been studied as <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045487/" class="def">chemoprevention</a>. The studies show mixed results but most have shown that aspirin does not prevent cancer. However, there is evidence that taking aspirin for long periods of time may prevent <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444983/" class="def">colorectal cancer</a> in certain people. For more information, see <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000258007/">Colorectal Cancer Prevention</a>.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__398">Results from a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045858/" class="def">randomized trial</a> suggest that taking aspirin may make cancer grow more quickly in the elderly, but longer follow up is needed to confirm these results. </p><p id="CDR0000454520__399">Bleeding in the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046189/" class="def">gastrointestinal tract</a> or brain is a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046580/" class="def">side effect</a> of aspirin. Even though aspirin has not been shown to reduce the risk of most cancers, it has many uses, including helping to lower the chances of dying from heart disease. Before beginning long-term aspirin use, it is important to talk with your doctor about the related benefits and harms. </p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__341"><h3>Vitamin and dietary supplements have not been shown to prevent cancer. </h3><p id="CDR0000454520__315">An <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000454757/" class="def">intervention</a> is a treatment or action taken to prevent or treat disease, or improve health in other ways.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__342">There is not enough proof that taking multivitamin and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045787/" class="def">mineral</a>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045916/" class="def">supplements</a> or single <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044744/" class="def">vitamins</a> or minerals can prevent cancer. The following vitamins and mineral supplements have been studied, but have not been shown to lower the risk of cancer:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__343"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000471786/" class="def">Vitamin B6</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000390323/" class="def">Vitamin B12</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045023/" class="def">Vitamin E</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000439435/" class="def">Vitamin C</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045328/" class="def">Beta carotene</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045236/" class="def">Folic acid</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045113/" class="def">Selenium</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000427253/" class="def">Vitamin D</a>.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000454520__366">The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT) found that vitamin E taken alone increased the risk of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445079/" class="def">prostate cancer</a>. The risk continued even after the men stopped taking vitamin E. Taking selenium with vitamin E or taking selenium alone did not increase the risk of prostate cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__367">Vitamin D has also been studied to see if it has anticancer effects. Skin exposed to sunshine can make vitamin D. Vitamin D can also be consumed in the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044660/" class="def">diet</a> and in <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000373932/" class="def">dietary supplements</a>. Taking vitamin D in <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044664/" class="def">doses</a> from 400–1100 <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044764/" class="def">IU</a>/ day has not been shown to lower or increase the risk of cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__368">The VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL) is under way to study whether taking vitamin D (2000 IU/ day) and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045809/" class="def">omega-3 fatty acids</a> from marine (oily fish) sources lowers the risk of cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__372">The Physicians' Health Study found that men who have had cancer in the past and take a multivitamin daily may have a slightly lower risk of having a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046658/" class="def">second cancer</a>.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__265">See the following PDQ summaries for more information:</p><ul id="CDR0000454520__266"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000257994/">Breast Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000258007/">Colorectal Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062825/">Lung Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062853/">Prostate Cancer Prevention</a>
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</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000454520__318"><h3>New ways to prevent cancer are being studied in clinical trials.</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__318_md_95">Information about <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045961/" class="def">clinical trials</a> supported by <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044267/" class="def">NCI</a> can be found on NCI’s <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/research/participate/clinical-trials-search" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">clinical trials search</a> webpage. Clinical trials supported by other organizations can be found on the <a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">ClinicalTrials.gov</a> website.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_1"><h2 id="_CDR0000454520__AboutThis_1_">About This PDQ Summary</h2><div id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_2"><h3>About PDQ</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_3">Physician Data Query (PDQ) is the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) comprehensive cancer information database. The PDQ database contains summaries of the latest published information on cancer prevention, detection, genetics, treatment, supportive care, and complementary and alternative medicine. Most summaries come in two versions. The health professional versions have detailed information written in technical language. The patient versions are written in easy-to-understand, nontechnical language. Both versions have cancer information that is accurate and up to date and most versions are also available in <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/espanol/publicaciones/pdq" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Spanish</a>.</p><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_4">PDQ is a service of the NCI. The NCI is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIH is the federal government’s center of biomedical research. The PDQ summaries are based on an independent review of the medical literature. They are not policy statements of the NCI or the NIH.</p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_5"><h3>Purpose of This Summary</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_6">This PDQ cancer information summary has current information about cancer prevention. It is meant to inform and help patients, families, and caregivers. It does not give formal guidelines or recommendations for making decisions about health care.</p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_7"><h3>Reviewers and Updates</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_8">Editorial Boards write the PDQ cancer information summaries and keep them up to date. These Boards are made up of experts in cancer treatment and other specialties related to cancer. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made when there is new information. The date on each summary ("Updated") is the date of the most recent change.
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</p><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_9">The information in this patient summary was taken from the health professional version, which is reviewed regularly and updated as needed, by the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/pdq/editorial-boards/screening-prevention" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">PDQ Screening and Prevention Editorial Board</a>.
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</p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_10"><h3>Clinical Trial Information</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_11">A clinical trial is a study to answer a scientific question, such as whether one treatment is better than another. Trials are based on past studies and what has been learned in the laboratory. Each trial answers certain scientific questions in order to find new and better ways to help cancer patients. During treatment clinical trials, information is collected about the effects of a new treatment and how well it works. If a clinical trial shows that a new treatment is better than one currently being used, the new treatment may become "standard." Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
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</p><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_12">Clinical trials can be found online at <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/research/participate/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI's website</a>. For more information, call the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/contact/contact-center" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Cancer Information Service</a> (CIS), NCI's contact center, at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237).
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</p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_13"><h3>Permission to Use This Summary</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_14">PDQ is a registered trademark. The content of PDQ documents can be used freely as text. It cannot be identified as an NCI PDQ cancer information summary unless the whole summary is shown and it is updated regularly. However, a user would be allowed to write a sentence such as “NCI’s PDQ cancer information summary about breast cancer prevention states the risks in the following way: [include excerpt from the summary].”
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</p><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_15">The best way to cite this PDQ summary is:</p><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_21">PDQ® Screening and Prevention Editorial Board. PDQ Cancer Prevention Overview. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/patient-prevention-overview-pdq" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/patient-prevention-overview-pdq</a>. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389424]</p><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_16">Images in this summary are used with permission of the author(s), artist, and/or publisher for use in the PDQ summaries only. If you want to use an image from a PDQ summary and you are not using the whole summary, you must get permission from the owner. It cannot be given by the National Cancer Institute. Information about using the images in this summary, along with many other images related to cancer can be found in <a href="https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Visuals Online</a>. Visuals Online is a collection of more than 3,000 scientific images.
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</p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_17"><h3>Disclaimer</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_18">The information in these summaries should not be used to make decisions about insurance reimbursement. More information on insurance coverage is available on Cancer.gov on the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/managing-care" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Managing Cancer Care</a> page.</p></div><div id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_19"><h3>Contact Us</h3><p id="CDR0000454520__AboutThis_20">More information about contacting us or receiving help with the Cancer.gov website can be found on our <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/contact" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Contact Us for Help</a> page. Questions can also be submitted to Cancer.gov through the website’s <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/contact/email-us" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">E-mail Us</a>.</p></div></div></div></div>
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<div class="post-content"><div><div class="half_rhythm"><a href="/books/about/copyright/">Copyright Notice</a></div><div class="small"><span class="label">Bookshelf ID: NBK65987</span><span class="label">PMID: <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26389424" title="PubMed record of this page" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">26389424</a></span></div></div></div>
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