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<div class="pre-content"><div><div class="bk_prnt"><p class="small">NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.</p><p>PDQ Cancer Information Summaries [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US); 2002-. </p></div><div class="iconblock clearfix whole_rhythm no_top_margin bk_noprnt"><a class="img_link icnblk_img" title="Table of Contents Page" href="/books/n/pdqcis/"><img class="source-thumb" src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-pdqcis-lrg.png" alt="Cover of PDQ Cancer Information Summaries" height="100px" width="80px" /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt eight_col"><h2>PDQ Cancer Information Summaries [Internet].</h2><a data-jig="ncbitoggler" href="#__NBK65973_dtls__">Show details</a><div style="display:none" class="ui-widget" id="__NBK65973_dtls__"><div>Bethesda (MD): <a href="http://www.cancer.gov/" ref="pagearea=page-banner&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher">National Cancer Institute (US)</a>; 2002-.</div></div><div class="half_rhythm"></div><div class="bk_noprnt"><form method="get" action="/books/n/pdqcis/" id="bk_srch"><div class="bk_search"><label for="bk_term" class="offscreen_noflow">Search term</label><input type="text" title="Search this book" id="bk_term" name="term" value="" data-jig="ncbiclearbutton" /> <input type="submit" class="jig-ncbibutton" value="Search this book" submit="false" style="padding: 0.1em 0.4em;" /></div></form></div></div></div></div></div>
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<div class="main-content lit-style" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/CreativeWork"><div class="meta-content fm-sec"><h1 id="_NBK65973_"><span class="title" itemprop="name">Breast Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)</span></h1><div class="subtitle whole_rhythm">Patient Version</div><p class="contrib-group"><span itemprop="author">PDQ Screening and Prevention Editorial Board</span>.</p><p class="small">Published online: June 26, 2023.</p></div><div class="jig-ncbiinpagenav body-content whole_rhythm" data-jigconfig="allHeadingLevels: ['h2'],smoothScroll: false" itemprop="text"><div id="_abs_rndgid_" itemprop="description"><p id="CDR0000257994__302">This PDQ cancer information summary has current information about breast cancer prevention. It is meant to inform and help patients, families, and caregivers. It does not give formal guidelines or recommendations for making decisions about health care.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__303">Editorial Boards write the PDQ cancer information summaries and keep them up to date. These Boards are made up of experts in cancer treatment and other specialties related to cancer. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made when there is new information. The date on each summary ("Date Last Modified") is the date of the most recent change. The information in this patient summary was taken from the health professional version, which is reviewed regularly and updated as needed, by the PDQ Screening and Prevention Editorial Board.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__1"><h2 id="_CDR0000257994__1_">What is prevention?</h2><p id="CDR0000257994__2"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045333/" class="def">Cancer</a>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000439419/" class="def">prevention</a> is action taken to lower the chance of getting cancer. By preventing cancer, the number of new cases of cancer in a group or population is lowered. Hopefully, this will reduce the burden of cancer and lower the number of deaths caused by cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__312">Cancer is not a single disease but a group of related diseases. Our <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045693/" class="def">genes</a>, lifestyle, and the environment around us work together to increase or decrease our risk of getting cancer. Each person’s cancer risk is made up of a combination of these factors.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__139"> Anything that increases your chance of developing cancer is called a cancer <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045873/" class="def">risk factor</a>; anything that decreases your chance of developing cancer is called a cancer <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000439422/" class="def">protective factor</a>.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__56">Some risk factors for cancer can be avoided, but many cannot. For
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example, both smoking and inheriting certain genes are risk factors for some
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types of cancer, but only smoking can be avoided. Regular exercise and a healthy <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044660/" class="def">diet</a> may be protective factors for some types of cancer. Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may lower your risk but it does
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not mean that you will not get cancer. </p><p id="CDR0000257994__138">Different ways to prevent cancer are being studied, including:</p><ul id="CDR0000257994__133"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Changing lifestyle or eating habits.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Avoiding things known to cause cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Taking <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000482419/" class="def">medicine</a> to treat a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046220/" class="def">precancerous</a>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000651193/" class="def">condition</a> or to keep cancer from starting.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Risk-reducing <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045570/" class="def">surgery</a>.</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000257994__4"><h2 id="_CDR0000257994__4_">General Information About Breast Cancer</h2><div id="CDR0000257994__4.kp" class="box"><h4><span class="title">Key Points for This Section</span></h4><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__5">Breast cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells
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form in the tissues of the breast.</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__9">Breast cancer is the second most common type of cancer
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in American women.</a></div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000257994__5"><h3>Breast cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells
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form in the tissues of the breast.</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__7">The <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000304766/" class="def">breast</a> is made up of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046188/" class="def">lobes</a> and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046441/" class="def">ducts</a>. Each breast has 15 to 20 sections called
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lobes, which have many smaller sections called <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046308/" class="def">lobules</a>. Lobules end in dozens of tiny bulbs that
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can make milk. The lobes, lobules, and bulbs are linked by thin tubes called
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ducts.<div id="CDR0000257994__143" class="figure bk_fig"><div class="graphic"><a href="/core/lw/2.0/html/tileshop_pmc/tileshop_pmc_inline.html?title=Anatomy%20of%20the%20female%20breast&p=BOOKS&id=592884_CDR0000415520.jpg" target="tileshopwindow" class="inline_block pmc_inline_block ts_canvas img_link" title="Click on image to zoom"><div class="ts_bar small" title="Click on image to zoom"></div><img src="/books/NBK65973/bin/CDR0000415520.jpg" alt="Drawing of female breast anatomy showing the lymph nodes, nipple, areola, chest wall, ribs, muscle, fatty tissue, lobe, ducts, and lobules." class="tileshop" title="Click on image to zoom" /></a></div><div class="caption"><p>Anatomy of the female breast. The nipple and areola are shown on the outside of the breast. The lymph nodes, lobes, lobules, ducts, and other parts of the inside of the breast are also shown.</p></div></div></p><p id="CDR0000257994__8">Each breast also has <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045020/" class="def">blood
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vessels</a> and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000269462/" class="def">lymph
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vessels</a>. The lymph vessels carry an almost colorless, watery <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044669/" class="def">fluid</a> called <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046305/" class="def">lymph</a>. Lymph
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vessels carry lymph between <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045762/" class="def">lymph
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nodes</a>. Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures that <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000748828/" class="def">filter</a> lymph and store <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045993/" class="def">white blood cells</a> that help fight
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045364/" class="def">infection</a> and disease. Groups of lymph nodes are found near the breast in the
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046510/" class="def">axilla</a> (under the arm), above the
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000639993/" class="def">collarbone</a>, and in the chest.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__177">See the following <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044271/" class="def">PDQ</a> summaries for more information about <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444971/" class="def">breast cancer</a>:</p><ul id="CDR0000257994__178"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000257995/">Breast Cancer Screening</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062955/">Breast Cancer Treatment (Adult)</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062970/">Breast Cancer Treatment During Pregnancy</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062969/">Male Breast Cancer Treatment</a>
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</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062855/">Genetics of Breast and Ovarian Cancer</a>
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</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000257994__9"><h3>Breast cancer is the second most common type of cancer
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in American women.</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__11">Women in the United States get <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444971/" class="def">breast cancer</a> more than any other
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type of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045333/" class="def">cancer</a> except <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445084/" class="def">skin cancer</a>. Breast cancer is second to <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000445043/" class="def">lung cancer</a> as a cause of cancer death in American women. Breast cancer
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rates in women increased gradually for many years until the early 2000s and then decreased rapidly, coinciding with a drop in <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045269/" class="def">postmenopausal</a>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045110/" class="def">hormone therapy</a> use. Deaths from breast cancer have declined by 42% as of 2019; however, breast cancer deaths in Black women remain 41% higher than in White women. Breast cancer also occurs in men, but the number of new
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cases is small.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000257994__12"><h2 id="_CDR0000257994__12_">Breast Cancer Prevention</h2><div id="CDR0000257994__12.kp" class="box"><h4><span class="title">Key Points for This Section</span></h4><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__13">Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may
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help prevent cancer.</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__217">The following are risk factors for breast cancer:</a></div><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__289">Older age</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__273">A personal history of breast cancer or benign (noncancer) breast disease</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__285">Inherited risk of breast cancer</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__195">Dense breast tissue</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__199">Reproductive history resulting in greater exposure to estrogen</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__203">Taking hormone therapy for symptoms of menopause </a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__206">Radiation therapy to the breast or chest</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__211">Obesity</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__214">Drinking alcohol </a></div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__77">The following are <i>protective </i>factors for breast cancer:</a></div><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__223">Reproductive history resulting in less exposure to estrogen</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__299">Taking selective estrogen receptor modulators or aromatase inhibitors and inactivators</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__91">
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Risk-reducing or prophylactic mastectomy
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</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__140">Ovarian ablation</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__227">Getting enough exercise</a></div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__119">It is not clear whether the following affect the risk of breast cancer:</a></div><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__307">Hormonal contraceptives</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__124">Chemicals in the environment</a></div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__234">Studies have shown that some factors have little or no effect on the risk of breast cancer.</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__94">Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer.</a></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000257994__63">New ways to prevent breast cancer are being studied in clinical trials. </a></div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000257994__13"><h3>Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may
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help prevent cancer.</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__13_md_53">Avoiding <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045333/" class="def">cancer</a>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045873/" class="def">risk factors</a> may help <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000439419/" class="def">prevent</a> certain cancers. Risk factors include smoking, having <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000304742/" class="def">overweight</a>, and not getting enough exercise. Increasing <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000439422/" class="def">protective factors</a> such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers. Talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__179"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044267/" class="def">NCI's</a>
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<a href="https://bcrisktool.cancer.gov/" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Breast Cancer Risk Assessment Tool</a> uses a woman's <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045873/" class="def">risk factors</a> to estimate her risk for <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444971/" class="def">breast cancer</a> during the next five years and up to age 90. This online tool is meant to be used by a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000650566/" class="def">health care provider</a>. For more information on breast cancer risk, call 1-800-4-CANCER.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__217"><h3>The following are risk factors for breast cancer:</h3><div id="CDR0000257994__289"><h4>Older age</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__291">Besides being a woman, older age is the main risk factor for breast cancer. The chance of getting breast cancer increases as a woman gets older. A 30-year-old woman has about a 1 in 200 chance of being <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046450/" class="def">diagnosed</a> with breast cancer in the next 10 years, while a 70-year-old woman has a 1 in 25 chance.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__316">Women aged 50 to 69 years who have screening mammograms have a lower chance of dying from breast cancer than women who do not have screening mammograms. Screening by mammography decreases breast cancer mortality by identifying cases for treatment at an earlier stage.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__273"><h4>A personal history of breast cancer or benign (noncancer) breast disease</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__276">Women with any of the following have an increased risk of breast cancer:</p><ul id="CDR0000257994__275"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000642021/" class="def">personal history</a> of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000537695/" class="def">invasive breast cancer</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045674/" class="def">ductal carcinoma in situ</a> (DCIS), or <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046315/" class="def">lobular carcinoma in situ</a> (LCIS).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A personal history of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045614/" class="def">benign</a> (noncancer) breast disease.</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000257994__285"><h4>Inherited risk of breast cancer</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__287">Women with a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000302456/" class="def">family history</a> of breast cancer in a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000460150/" class="def">first-degree relative</a> (mother, sister, or daughter) have an increased risk of breast cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__194">Women who have <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045098/" class="def">inherited</a> changes in the <i><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046047/" class="def">BRCA1</a></i> and <i><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046742/" class="def">BRCA2</a></i>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045693/" class="def">genes</a> or in certain other genes have a higher risk of breast cancer. The risk of breast cancer caused by inherited gene changes depends on the type of gene <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046063/" class="def">mutation</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000302456/" class="def">family history</a> of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045333/" class="def">cancer</a>, and other factors. </p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__195"><h4>Dense breast tissue</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__197">Having breast <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046683/" class="def">tissue</a> that is <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000335487/" class="def">dense</a> on a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045775/" class="def">mammogram</a> is a factor in breast cancer risk. The level of risk depends on how dense the breast tissue is. Women with very dense breasts have a higher risk of breast cancer than women with low breast density.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__198">Increased breast density is often an inherited trait, but it may also occur in women who have not had children, have a first <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000666677/" class="def">pregnancy</a> late in life, take <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045269/" class="def">postmenopausal</a>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045713/" class="def">hormones</a>, or drink <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000463134/" class="def">alcohol</a>. For more information, see <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/breast-changes/dense-breasts" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Dense Breasts: Answers to Commonly Asked Questions</a>.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__199"><h4>Reproductive history resulting in greater exposure to estrogen</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__201">
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046076/" class="def">Estrogen</a> is a hormone made by the body. It helps the body develop and
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maintain female sex characteristics. Being exposed to estrogen over a long time may increase the risk of breast cancer. Estrogen levels are highest during the years a woman is <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046297/" class="def">menstruating</a>. </p><p id="CDR0000257994__268">The following factors in a woman's <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000803193/" class="def">reproductive history</a> increase the length of time her breast tissue is exposed to estrogen and may increase the risk of breast cancer: </p><ul id="CDR0000257994__202"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Early menstruation</b>: Beginning to have <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000410605/" class="def">menstrual periods</a> before age 12 increases the number of years the breast tissue is exposed to
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estrogen.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Starting <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046296/" class="def">menopause</a> at a later age</b>: The more years a woman
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menstruates, the longer her breast tissue is exposed to estrogen.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Older age at birth of first child or never having given birth</b>: <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000666677/" class="def">Pregnancy</a> lowers a woman’s lifetime number of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045784/" class="def">menstrual cycles</a>. Breast tissue is exposed to more estrogen for longer periods of time in women who become pregnant for the first time after age 35 or who never become pregnant.</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000257994__203"><h4>Taking hormone therapy for symptoms of menopause </h4><p id="CDR0000257994__205">Hormones, such as estrogen and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045158/" class="def">progesterone</a>, can be made into a pill form in a laboratory. Estrogen, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000304743/" class="def">progestin</a>, or both may be given to replace the estrogen no longer made by the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046687/" class="def">ovaries</a> in postmenopausal women or women who have had their ovaries removed. This is called <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046127/" class="def">hormone replacement therapy</a> (HRT) or hormone therapy (HT). Estrogen therapy that began close to the time of menopause is associated with an increased risk of developing breast cancer. Estrogen therapy that began at or after menopause is associated with an increased risk of developing endometrial cancer and total cardiovascular disease, especially stroke. The risk of breast cancer does not decrease after women stop taking estrogen. Combination HT is estrogen combined with progestin. This type of MHT increases the risk of breast cancer. Studies show that when women stop taking estrogen combined with progestin, the risk of breast cancer decreases. </p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__206"><h4>Radiation therapy to the breast or chest</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__208">
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044971/" class="def">Radiation therapy</a> to the chest for the treatment of cancer increases the risk of breast cancer, starting 10 years after treatment. The risk of breast cancer depends on the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044664/" class="def">dose</a> of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045072/" class="def">radiation</a> and the age at which it is given. The risk is highest if radiation treatment was used during <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000440113/" class="def">puberty</a>, when breasts are forming. </p><p id="CDR0000257994__209">Radiation therapy to treat cancer in one breast does not appear
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to increase the risk of cancer in the other breast.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__210">For women who have inherited changes in the <i>BRCA1</i> and<i> BRCA2</i> genes, exposure to radiation, such as that from <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000304687/" class="def">chest x-rays</a>, may further increase the risk of breast cancer, especially in women who were <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045944/" class="def">x-rayed</a> before 20 years of age.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__211"><h4>Obesity</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__213"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000527371/" class="def">Obesity</a> increases
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the risk of breast cancer, especially in postmenopausal women who have not used hormone replacement therapy.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__214"><h4>Drinking alcohol </h4><p id="CDR0000257994__216">Drinking <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000463134/" class="def">alcohol</a> increases the risk of breast cancer. The level of risk rises as the amount of alcohol consumed rises.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000257994__77"><h3>The following are <i>protective </i>factors for breast cancer:</h3><div id="CDR0000257994__223"><h4>Reproductive history resulting in less exposure to estrogen</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__225">A woman’s reproductive history can affect the length of time her breast tissue is exposed to estrogen. Early onset of menstruation, late onset of menopause, later age at first pregnancy, and never having given birth have been linked to an increase in estrogen exposure and breast cancer risk. The following reproductive factors decrease the length of time a woman's breast tissue is exposed to estrogen and may help prevent breast cancer: </p><ul id="CDR0000257994__226"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>
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Early pregnancy</b>: Estrogen levels are lower during pregnancy. In one study, women who had a full-term pregnancy before age 20 had a lower risk of breast cancer than women who did not have children or who gave birth to their first child after age 35.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Breast-feeding</b>: Estrogen levels may remain lower while a woman is breast-feeding. Women who breastfed have a lower risk of breast cancer than women who have had children but did not breastfeed.</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000257994__299"><h4>Taking selective estrogen receptor modulators or aromatase inhibitors and inactivators</h4><div id="CDR0000257994__83"><h5>Selective estrogen receptor modulators</h5><p id="CDR0000257994__186"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000509341/" class="def">Tamoxifen</a> and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000572250/" class="def">raloxifene</a> belong to the family of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000348921/" class="def">drugs</a> called <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044229/" class="def">selective estrogen receptor modulators</a> (SERMs). SERMs act like estrogen on some tissues in the body, but block the effect of estrogen on other tissues. </p><p id="CDR0000257994__187">Treatment with tamoxifen lowers the risk of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045270/" class="def">estrogen receptor-positive</a> (ER-positive) breast cancer and ductal carcinoma <i>in situ</i> in <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045268/" class="def">premenopausal</a> and postmenopausal women at high risk. Tamoxifen is also used to treat <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044058/" class="def">metastatic</a> breast cancer and to prevent cancer from <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046556/" class="def">recurring</a> after <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045570/" class="def">surgery</a> to remove breast <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046634/" class="def">tumors</a>. Treatment with raloxifene also lowers the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. With either drug, the reduced risk lasts for several years or longer after treatment is stopped. Lower rates of broken bones have been noted in patients taking raloxifene.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__86">
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Taking tamoxifen increases the risk of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000256567/" class="def">hot flashes</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000444987/" class="def">endometrial cancer</a>, stroke, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000440102/" class="def">cataracts</a>, and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000476017/" class="def">blood clots</a> (especially in the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000270740/" class="def">lungs</a> and legs). The risk of having these problems increases markedly in women older than 50 years compared with younger women. Women younger than 50 years who have a high risk of breast cancer may benefit the most from taking tamoxifen. The risk of endometrial cancer lasts for 5 years after tamoxifen is stopped, but the risk of cataracts or blood clots does not last long.. Talk with your doctor about the risks and benefits of taking this drug.
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</p><p id="CDR0000257994__114">Taking raloxifene increases the risk of blood clots in the lungs and legs but does not appear to increase the risk of endometrial cancer. In postmenopausal women with <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045371/" class="def">osteoporosis</a> (decreased <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000407755/" class="def">bone density</a>), raloxifene lowers the risk of breast cancer for women who have a high or low risk of breast cancer. It is not known if raloxifene would have the same effect in women who do not have osteoporosis. Talk with your doctor about the risks and benefits of taking this drug.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__136">Other SERMs are being studied in clinical trials.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__115"><h5>Aromatase inhibitors and inactivators</h5><p id="CDR0000257994__117"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044232/" class="def">Aromatase inhibitors</a> (<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045504/" class="def">anastrozole</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045421/" class="def">letrozole</a>) and inactivators (<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045445/" class="def">exemestane</a>) lower the risk of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045861/" class="def">recurrence</a> and of new breast cancers in women who have a history of breast cancer. Aromatase inhibitors also decrease the risk of breast cancer in women with the following conditions: </p><ul id="CDR0000257994__180"><li class="half_rhythm"><div> Postmenopausal women with a personal history of breast cancer.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div> Women with no personal history of breast cancer who are 60 years and older, have a history of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045674/" class="def">ductal carcinoma in situ</a> with <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045777/" class="def">mastectomy</a>, or have a high risk of breast cancer based on the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000256564/" class="def">Gail model</a> tool (a tool used to estimate the risk of breast cancer). </div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000257994__181">In women with an increased risk of breast cancer, taking aromatase inhibitors decreases the amount of estrogen made by the body. Before menopause, estrogen is made by the ovaries and other tissues in a woman's body, including the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000797669/" class="def">brain</a>, fat tissue, and skin. After menopause, the ovaries stop making estrogen, but the other tissues do not. Aromatase inhibitors block the action of an <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046081/" class="def">enzyme</a> called aromatase, which is used to make all of the body's estrogen. Aromatase inactivators stop the enzyme from working.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__182">Possible harms from taking aromatase inhibitors include muscle and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000458080/" class="def">joint</a> pain, osteoporosis, hot flashes, and feeling very tired.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000257994__91"><h4>
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Risk-reducing or prophylactic mastectomy
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</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__93">Some women who have a high risk of breast cancer may choose to have a risk-reducing or <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044227/" class="def">prophylactic mastectomy</a> (the removal of one or both breasts when there are no signs of cancer). After surgery, the risk of breast cancer becomes much lower in these women and most feel less <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000430405/" class="def">anxious</a> about their risk of breast cancer. Some women diagnosed with breast cancer may decide to have a healthy breast removed at the same time the breast with cancer is removed. This is called <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000803190/" class="def">contralateral prophylactic mastectomy</a>. However, it is very important to have a cancer risk assessment and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000450098/" class="def">counseling</a> about the different ways to prevent breast cancer before making any decision about surgery.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__140"><h4>Ovarian ablation</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__301">The ovaries make most of the estrogen that is made by the body. Treatments that stop or lower the amount of estrogen made by the ovaries include <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045570/" class="def">surgery</a> to remove the ovaries, radiation therapy, or taking certain drugs. This is called <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045811/" class="def">ovarian ablation</a>.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__142">Premenopausal women who have a high risk of breast cancer due to certain changes in the <i>BRCA1</i> and <i>BRCA2</i> genes may choose to have a risk-reducing <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045438/" class="def">oophorectomy</a> (the removal of both ovaries when there are no signs of cancer). This decreases the amount of estrogen made by the body and lowers the risk of breast cancer. Risk-reducing oophorectomy also lowers the risk of breast cancer in average-risk premenopausal women and in women with an increased risk of breast cancer due to radiation to the chest. However, it is very important to have a cancer risk assessment and counseling before making this decision. The sudden drop in estrogen levels may cause the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045022/" class="def">symptoms</a> of menopause to begin. These include hot flashes, trouble sleeping, anxiety, and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000430479/" class="def">depression</a>. Long-term effects include decreased <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000651212/" class="def">sex drive</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044308/" class="def">vaginal</a> dryness, and decreased bone density. </p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__227"><h4>Getting enough exercise</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__229">Women who take part in physical exercise have a lower risk of breast cancer.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000257994__119"><h3>It is not clear whether the following affect the risk of breast cancer:</h3><div id="CDR0000257994__307"><h4>Hormonal contraceptives</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__309"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000794375/" class="def">Hormonal contraceptives</a> contain estrogen or estrogen and progestin. Some studies have shown that women who are current or recent users of hormonal contraceptives may have a slight increase in breast cancer risk. Other studies have not shown an increased risk of breast cancer in women using hormonal contraceptives.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__310">In one study, the risk of breast cancer slightly increased the longer a woman used hormonal contraceptives. Another study showed that the slight increase in breast cancer risk decreased over time when women stopped using hormonal contraceptives.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__311">More studies are needed to know whether hormonal contraceptives affect a woman's risk of breast cancer.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__124"><h4>Chemicals in the environment</h4><p id="CDR0000257994__313"><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044724/" class="def">Scientists</a> are studying whether exposure to <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000643008/" class="def">chemicals</a> in the environment may increase a woman's risk of breast cancer. Studies of this kind can be difficult to conduct and interpret for many reasons:</p><ul id="CDR0000257994__314"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>It is hard to determine the specific chemicals people have been exposed to in the past. It can take decades after a potential exposure before cancer develops, and a person may not be aware of or remember the past exposure.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Even if a chemical is shown in a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000046590/" class="def">laboratory test</a> to cause cancer, this does not necessarily mean it will cause cancer in people exposed to that chemical in the environment. A chemical may cause cancer when tested at high levels in laboratory studies but not at the lower levels seen in the environment.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Individual chemicals are likely to cause only a small increase in risk, and it can be difficult to detect that increase in the context of the other factors that may influence a woman's risk of breast cancer.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000257994__315">These reasons make it hard to know which chemicals, if any, may increase the risk of breast cancer. More studies are needed to know whether chemicals in the environment affect a woman's risk of breast cancer. For more information, see <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/substances/carcinogens" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Environmental Carcinogens and Cancer Risk</a>.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000257994__234"><h3>Studies have shown that some factors have little or no effect on the risk of breast cancer.</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__271"><div class="milestone-start" id="CDR0000257994__304"></div>The following have little or no effect on the risk of breast cancer:</p><ul id="CDR0000257994__270"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Having an abortion.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Making <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044660/" class="def">diet</a> changes such as eating less fat or more fruits and vegetables.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Taking <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044744/" class="def">vitamins</a>, including <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045233/" class="def">fenretinide</a> (a type of <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045248/" class="def">vitamin A</a>).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000748148/" class="def">Cigarette</a> smoking, both active and passive (<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044600/" class="def">inhaling</a>
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<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000538647/" class="def">secondhand smoke</a>).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div> Using underarm deodorant or antiperspirant.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Taking <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000390255/" class="def">statins</a> (<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000407756/" class="def">cholesterol</a>-lowering drugs).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Taking <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044817/" class="def">bisphosphonates</a> (drugs used to treat osteoporosis and <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045363/" class="def">hypercalcemia</a>) by mouth or by <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000520363/" class="def">intravenous infusion</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Changes in your <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000790629/" class="def">circadian rhythm</a> (physical, mental, and behavioral changes that are mainly affected by darkness and light in 24 hour cycles), which may be affected by working night shifts or the amount of light in your bedroom at night.<div class="milestone-end"></div></div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000257994__94"><h3>Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer.</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__45">Cancer prevention <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045961/" class="def">clinical trials</a> are used to study ways to lower the risk
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of developing certain types of cancer. Some cancer prevention trials are
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conducted with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer. Other prevention trials
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are conducted with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a
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new type of cancer. Other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__46">The purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out
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whether actions people take can prevent cancer. These may include exercising more or quitting smoking
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or taking certain <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000482419/" class="def">medicines</a>, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045916/" class="def">supplements</a>, vitamins, <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045787/" class="def">minerals</a>, or food.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__63"><h3>New ways to prevent breast cancer are being studied in clinical trials. </h3><p id="CDR0000257994__12_md_95">Information about <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000045961/" class="def">clinical trials</a> supported by <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary/def-item/glossary_CDR0000044267/" class="def">NCI</a> can be found on NCI’s <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/research/participate/clinical-trials-search" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">clinical trials search</a> webpage. Clinical trials supported by other organizations can be found on the <a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">ClinicalTrials.gov</a> website.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_1"><h2 id="_CDR0000257994__AboutThis_1_">About This PDQ Summary</h2><div id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_2"><h3>About PDQ</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_3">Physician Data Query (PDQ) is the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) comprehensive cancer information database. The PDQ database contains summaries of the latest published information on cancer prevention, detection, genetics, treatment, supportive care, and complementary and alternative medicine. Most summaries come in two versions. The health professional versions have detailed information written in technical language. The patient versions are written in easy-to-understand, nontechnical language. Both versions have cancer information that is accurate and up to date and most versions are also available in <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/espanol/publicaciones/pdq" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Spanish</a>.</p><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_4">PDQ is a service of the NCI. The NCI is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIH is the federal government’s center of biomedical research. The PDQ summaries are based on an independent review of the medical literature. They are not policy statements of the NCI or the NIH.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_5"><h3>Purpose of This Summary</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_6">This PDQ cancer information summary has current information about breast cancer prevention. It is meant to inform and help patients, families, and caregivers. It does not give formal guidelines or recommendations for making decisions about health care.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_7"><h3>Reviewers and Updates</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_8">Editorial Boards write the PDQ cancer information summaries and keep them up to date. These Boards are made up of experts in cancer treatment and other specialties related to cancer. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made when there is new information. The date on each summary ("Updated") is the date of the most recent change.
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</p><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_9">The information in this patient summary was taken from the health professional version, which is reviewed regularly and updated as needed, by the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/pdq/editorial-boards/screening-prevention" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">PDQ Screening and Prevention Editorial Board</a>.
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</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_10"><h3>Clinical Trial Information</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_11">A clinical trial is a study to answer a scientific question, such as whether one treatment is better than another. Trials are based on past studies and what has been learned in the laboratory. Each trial answers certain scientific questions in order to find new and better ways to help cancer patients. During treatment clinical trials, information is collected about the effects of a new treatment and how well it works. If a clinical trial shows that a new treatment is better than one currently being used, the new treatment may become "standard." Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
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</p><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_12">Clinical trials can be found online at <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/research/participate/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI's website</a>. For more information, call the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/contact/contact-center" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Cancer Information Service</a> (CIS), NCI's contact center, at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237).
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</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_13"><h3>Permission to Use This Summary</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_14">PDQ is a registered trademark. The content of PDQ documents can be used freely as text. It cannot be identified as an NCI PDQ cancer information summary unless the whole summary is shown and it is updated regularly. However, a user would be allowed to write a sentence such as “NCI’s PDQ cancer information summary about breast cancer prevention states the risks in the following way: [include excerpt from the summary].”
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</p><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_15">The best way to cite this PDQ summary is:</p><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_21">PDQ® Screening and Prevention Editorial Board. PDQ Breast Cancer Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/patient/breast-prevention-pdq" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/patient/breast-prevention-pdq</a>. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389410]</p><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_16">Images in this summary are used with permission of the author(s), artist, and/or publisher for use in the PDQ summaries only. If you want to use an image from a PDQ summary and you are not using the whole summary, you must get permission from the owner. It cannot be given by the National Cancer Institute. Information about using the images in this summary, along with many other images related to cancer can be found in <a href="https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Visuals Online</a>. Visuals Online is a collection of more than 3,000 scientific images.
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</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_17"><h3>Disclaimer</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_18">The information in these summaries should not be used to make decisions about insurance reimbursement. More information on insurance coverage is available on Cancer.gov on the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/managing-care" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Managing Cancer Care</a> page.</p></div><div id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_19"><h3>Contact Us</h3><p id="CDR0000257994__AboutThis_20">More information about contacting us or receiving help with the Cancer.gov website can be found on our <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/contact" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Contact Us for Help</a> page. Questions can also be submitted to Cancer.gov through the website’s <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/contact/email-us" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">E-mail Us</a>.</p></div></div></div></div>
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