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<div class="pre-content"><div><div class="bk_prnt"><p class="small">NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.</p><p>PDQ Cancer Information Summaries [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US); 2002-. </p></div><div class="iconblock clearfix whole_rhythm no_top_margin bk_noprnt"><a class="img_link icnblk_img" title="Table of Contents Page" href="/books/n/pdqcis/"><img class="source-thumb" src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-pdqcis-lrg.png" alt="Cover of PDQ Cancer Information Summaries" height="100px" width="80px" /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt eight_col"><h2>PDQ Cancer Information Summaries [Internet].</h2><a data-jig="ncbitoggler" href="#__NBK65877_dtls__">Show details</a><div style="display:none" class="ui-widget" id="__NBK65877_dtls__"><div>Bethesda (MD): <a href="http://www.cancer.gov/" ref="pagearea=page-banner&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher">National Cancer Institute (US)</a>; 2002-.</div></div><div class="half_rhythm"></div><div class="bk_noprnt"><form method="get" action="/books/n/pdqcis/" id="bk_srch"><div class="bk_search"><label for="bk_term" class="offscreen_noflow">Search term</label><input type="text" title="Search this book" id="bk_term" name="term" value="" data-jig="ncbiclearbutton" /> <input type="submit" class="jig-ncbibutton" value="Search this book" submit="false" style="padding: 0.1em 0.4em;" /></div></form></div></div></div></div></div>
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<div class="main-content lit-style" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/CreativeWork"><div class="meta-content fm-sec"><h1 id="_NBK65877_"><span class="title" itemprop="name">Childhood Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors Treatment (PDQ®)</span></h1><div class="subtitle whole_rhythm">Health Professional Version</div><p class="contrib-group"><span itemprop="author">PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board</span>.</p><p class="small">Published online: August 11, 2016.</p></div><div class="jig-ncbiinpagenav body-content whole_rhythm" data-jigconfig="allHeadingLevels: ['h2'],smoothScroll: false" itemprop="text"><div id="_abs_rndgid_" itemprop="description"><p id="CDR0000062854__641">This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of childhood extracranial germ cell tumors. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__642">This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__1"><h2 id="_CDR0000062854__1_">General Information About Childhood Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors (GCTs)</h2><p id="CDR0000062854__3">Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence of childhood cancer has slowly increased since 1975.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_1">1</a>] Children and
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adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a
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multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the
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|
cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following health care professionals and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation that will achieve optimal survival and quality of life:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__591"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Primary care physicians.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Pediatric surgeons.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Radiation oncologists. </div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Pediatric medical oncologists and hematologists.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Rehabilitation specialists.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Pediatric nurse specialists.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Social workers.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Child life professionals.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Psychologists.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__120">Guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of
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pediatric patients with cancer have been outlined by the American Academy of
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Pediatrics.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_2">2</a>] At these pediatric cancer centers, clinical trials are
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|
available for most of the cancer types that occur in children and
|
|
adolescents, and the opportunity to participate in these trials is offered to
|
|
most patients and families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents with
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cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with
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therapy that is currently accepted as standard. Most of the progress
|
|
made in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved
|
|
through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is
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available from the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI website</a>.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__121">Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_3">3</a>] Between 1975 and 2010, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_3">3</a>] During the period from 2002 to 2010, cancer mortality continued to decrease by 2.4% per year for children and adolescents with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, neuroblastoma, central nervous system tumors, and gonadal tumors, as compared with the period from 1975 to 1998 (plateauing from 1998 to 2001).[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_3">3</a>] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because late effects of cancer therapy may persist or develop months or years after treatment. (Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000343584/">Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer</a> for specific information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors.)</p><p id="CDR0000062854__433">GCTs arise from primordial germ cells, which migrate during embryogenesis from the yolk sac through the mesentery to the gonads.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_4">4</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_5">5</a>] Childhood extracranial GCTs can be divided into the following two types:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__434"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Gonadal.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Extragonadal. </div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__435">Most childhood extragonadal GCTs arise in midline sites (i.e., sacrococcygeal, mediastinal, and retroperitoneal); the midline location may represent aberrant embryonic migration of the primordial germ cells.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__436">Childhood extracranial GCTs are broadly classified as the following:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__437"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Mature teratomas.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Immature teratomas.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Malignant GCTs.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__438">GCTs comprise a variety of histologic diagnoses and can also be divided into the following histologic types:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__439"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Germinoma.<dl id="CDR0000062854__440" class="temp-labeled-list"><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Germinoma.</p></dd><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Dysgerminoma (ovary).</p></dd><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Seminoma (testis).</p></dd></dl></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Nongerminoma. <dl id="CDR0000062854__441" class="temp-labeled-list"><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Teratoma (mature and immature).</p></dd><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Yolk sac tumor (endodermal sinus tumor).</p></dd><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Choriocarcinoma.</p></dd><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Embryonal carcinoma.</p></dd><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Gonadoblastoma.</p></dd><dt>-</dt><dd><p class="no_top_margin">Mixed GCT (contains more than one of the histologies above).</p></dd></dl></div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__584">(Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000712041/">Childhood Central Nervous System Germ Cell Tumors
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Treatment</a> for information about the treatment of intracranial germ cell tumors.)</p><div id="CDR0000062854__442"><h3>Incidence</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__4">Childhood GCTs are rare in children younger than 15
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years, accounting for approximately 3% of cancers in this age
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group.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_6">6</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_9">9</a>] In the fetal/neonatal age group, most extracranial GCTs are benign teratomas occurring at midline locations, including sacrococcygeal, retroperitoneal, mediastinal, and cervical regions. Despite the small percentage of malignant teratomas that occur in this age group, perinatal tumors have a high morbidity rate caused by hydrops fetalis and premature delivery.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_10">10</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_11">11</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__443">Extracranial GCTs (particularly testicular GCTs) are much more common among adolescents aged 15 to 19 years, representing
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approximately 14% of cancers in this age group. </p><p id="CDR0000062854__444">The incidence of extracranial GCTs by 5-year age group and gender is shown in Table 1.
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</p><div id="CDR0000062854__164" class="table"><h3><span class="title">Table 1. Incidence of Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors by Age Group and Gender (per 10<sup>6</sup> population)<sup>a</sup></span></h3><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK65877.4/table/CDR0000062854__164/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__CDR0000062854__164_lrgtbl__"><table class="no_margin"><thead><tr><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">0–4 years</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">5–9 years</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">10–14 years </th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">15–19 years</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Males</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">7 </td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">0.3 </td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">1.4 </td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">31 </td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Females</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">5.8 </td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">2.4 </td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">7.8 </td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">25.3 </td></tr></tbody></table></div><div><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin"><sup>a</sup>Rates are per 1 million children from 1986 to 1995 for the nine Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results regions plus
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Los Angeles. </p></div></dd></dl></div></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__13"><h3>Histologic Classification of Childhood Extracranial GCTs</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__14">Childhood extracranial GCTs comprise a variety of histologic
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diagnoses and can be broadly classified as the following:
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</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__445"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__130">Mature teratomas</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__132">Immature teratomas</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__134">Malignant GCTs</a>.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__446">The histologic properties of these tumors are heterogeneous and vary by primary tumor site and the gender and age of the patient.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_12">12</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_13">13</a>] Histologically identical GCTs that arise in younger children have different biological characteristics from those that arise in adolescents and young adults.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_14">14</a>]</p><div id="CDR0000062854__130"><h4>Mature teratomas</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__131">Mature teratomas usually occur in the ovary or at extragonadal locations. They are the most common histological subtype of childhood GCT.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_15">15</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_17">17</a>] Mature teratomas usually contain well-differentiated tissues from the ectodermal, mesodermal, and endodermal germ cell layers, and any tissue type may be found within the tumor. </p><p id="CDR0000062854__447">Mature teratomas are benign, although some mature teratomas may secrete enzymes or hormones, including insulin, growth hormone, androgens, and prolactin.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_18">18</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_19">19</a>]</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__132"><h4>Immature teratomas</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__133">Immature teratomas contain tissues from the ectodermal, mesodermal, and endodermal germ cell layers, but immature tissues, primarily neuroepithelial, are also present. Immature teratomas are graded from 0 to 3 on the basis of the amount of immature neural tissue found in the tumor specimen.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_20">20</a>] Tumors of higher grade are more likely to have foci of yolk sac tumor.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_21">21</a>] Immature teratomas may be classified as malignant tumors. </p><p id="CDR0000062854__448">Immature teratomas occur primarily in young children at extragonadal sites and in the ovaries of girls near the age of puberty, but there is no correlation between tumor grade and patient age.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_21">21</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_22">22</a>] Some immature teratomas may secrete enzymes or hormones, such as vasopressin.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_23">23</a>]</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__134"><h4>Malignant GCTs</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__259">GCTs contain frankly malignant tissues of germ cell origin and, rarely, tissues of somatic origin. Isolated malignant elements may constitute a small fraction of a predominantly mature or immature teratoma.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_22">22</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_24">24</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__449">Malignant germ cell elements of children, adolescents, and young adults can be grouped broadly by location (refer to Tables 2 and 3).</p><div id="CDR0000062854__317" class="table"><h3><span class="title">Table 2. Histology of Malignant Germ Cell Tumors in Young Children<sup>a</sup></span></h3><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK65877.4/table/CDR0000062854__317/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__CDR0000062854__317_lrgtbl__"><table class="no_margin"><thead><tr><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Malignant Germ Cell Elements</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Location</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Yolk sac tumor (endodermal sinus tumor)</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">E, O, T</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Dysgerminoma (rare in young children)</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">O</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin">E = extragonadal; O = ovarian; T = testicular.</p></div></dd><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin"><sup>a</sup>Modified from Perlman et al.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_25">25</a>]</p></div></dd></dl></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__318" class="table"><h3><span class="title">Table 3. Histology of Malignant Germ Cell Tumors in Adolescents and Young Adults<sup>a</sup></span></h3><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK65877.4/table/CDR0000062854__318/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__CDR0000062854__318_lrgtbl__"><table class="no_margin"><thead><tr><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Malignant Germ Cell Elements</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Location</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Seminoma</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">T</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Dysgerminoma</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">O</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Germinoma</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">E</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Yolk sac tumor (endodermal sinus tumor)</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">E, O, T</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Choriocarcinoma</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">E, O, T</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Embryonal carcinoma</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">E, T</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Mixed germ cell tumors</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">E, O, T</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin">E = extragonadal; O = ovarian; T = testicular.</p></div></dd><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin"><sup>a</sup>Modified from Perlman et al.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_25">25</a>]</p></div></dd></dl></div></div></div><p id="CDR0000062854__263">Adolescent and young adult males present with more germinomas (testicular and mediastinal seminomas), and females present with more ovarian dysgerminomas. </p></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__204"><h3>Pediatric GCT Biology</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__205">The following biologically distinct subtypes of GCTs are found in children and adolescents:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__454"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__206">Testicular GCTs</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__208">Ovarian GCTs</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__210">Extragonadal extracranial GCTs</a>.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__455">It should be emphasized that very few pediatric GCT specimens have been analyzed to date. Biologic distinctions between GCTs in children and GCTs in adults may not be absolute, and biologic factors have not been shown to predict risk.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_26">26</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_28">28</a>]</p><div id="CDR0000062854__206"><h4>Testicular GCTs</h4><ul id="CDR0000062854__207"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Children: </b>During early childhood, both testicular teratomas and malignant testicular GCTs are identified. The malignant tumors are commonly composed of pure yolk sac tumor (also known as endodermal
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sinus tumor), are generally diploid or tetraploid, and often lack
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the isochromosome of the short arm of chromosome 12 that characterizes testicular cancer in young adults.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_26">26</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_29">29</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_33">33</a>] Deletions of chromosomes 1p, 4q,
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and 6q and gains of chromosomes 1q, 3, and 20q are reported as recurring chromosomal abnormalities for this group
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of tumors.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_31">31</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_34">34</a>]</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Adolescents and young adults:</b> Testicular GCTs typically possess an isochromosome of the short arm of
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chromosome 12 [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_35">35</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_38">38</a>] and are aneuploid.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_29">29</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_38">38</a>] Although adolescent testicular germ cell patients may be best treated at pediatric oncology centers, the treatment for adolescents older than 14 years follows the regimens used in adults. (Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062899/">Testicular Cancer
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Treatment</a> for more information.)</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000062854__208"><h4>Ovarian GCTs</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__209">Ovarian GCTs occur primarily in adolescent and young adult females. While most ovarian GCTs are benign mature teratomas, a heterogeneous group of malignant GCTs, including immature teratomas, dysgerminomas, yolk sac tumors, and mixed GCTs, do occur in females. The malignant ovarian GCT commonly shows increased copies of the short arm of chromosome 12.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_39">39</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__456">Patients with pediatric ovarian GCTs have an excellent prognosis. One series of 66 patients monitored for more than 44 years reported recurrence rates of 4.5% and mortality rates of 3%.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_40">40</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__457">(Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062935/">Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors Treatment</a> for more information.)</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__210"><h4>Extragonadal extracranial GCTs</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__458">Extragonadal extracranial GCTs occur outside of the brain and gonads.</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__211"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Children:</b> These tumors typically present at birth or during early childhood. Most of these tumors are benign teratomas occurring in the sacrococcygeal region, and thus are not included in Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) data.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_41">41</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_42">42</a>] Malignant yolk sac tumor histology occurs in a minority of these tumors; however, they may have cytogenetic abnormalities similar to those observed for tumors occurring in the testes of young males.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_30">30</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_32">32</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_34">34</a>]</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Older children, adolescents, and young adults:</b> The mediastinum is the most common primary site for extragonadal GCTs in older children and adolescents.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_16">16</a>] Mediastinal GCTs in children younger than 8 years share the same genetic gains and losses as sacrococcygeal and testicular tumors in young children.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_43">43</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_45">45</a>] The gain in chromosome 12p has been reported in mediastinal tumors in children aged 8 years and older.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_45">45</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_46">46</a>]</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__212">There are few data about the potential genetic or environmental factors
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associated with childhood extragonadal extracranial GCTs. Patients with
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the following syndromes are at an increased risk of extragonadal extracranial GCTs:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__459"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Klinefelter syndrome—increased risk of mediastinal GCTs.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_47">47</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_49">49</a>]</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Swyer syndrome—increased risk of gonadoblastomas and germinomas.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_50">50</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_51">51</a>]</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Turner syndrome—increased risk of gonadoblastomas and germinomas.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_52">52</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_53">53</a>]</div></li></ul></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__450"><h3>Clinical Features</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__451">Childhood extracranial GCTs develop at diffuse sites that include the testicles, ovaries, mediastinum, retroperitoneum, sacrum, and coccyx. The clinical features at presentation are specific for each site.</p><a id="CDR0000062854__636"></a><div id="CDR0000062854__637" class="figure bk_fig"><div class="graphic"><a href="/core/lw/2.0/html/tileshop_pmc/tileshop_pmc_inline.html?title=Figure%201&p=BOOKS&id=379538_CDR0000770217.jpg" target="tileshopwindow" class="inline_block pmc_inline_block ts_canvas img_link" title="Click on image to zoom"><div class="ts_bar small" title="Click on image to zoom"></div><img src="/books/NBK65877.4/bin/CDR0000770217.jpg" alt="Extracranial germ cell tumor; drawing shows parts of the body where extracranial germ cell tumors may form, including the mediastinum (the area between the lungs), retroperitoneum (the area behind the abdominal organs), sacrum, coccyx, testicles (in males), and ovaries (in females). Also shown are the heart and peritoneum." class="tileshop" title="Click on image to zoom" /></a></div><div class="caption"><p>Figure 1. Extracranial germ cell tumors form in parts of the body other than the brain. This includes the testicles, ovaries, sacrum (lower part of the spine), coccyx (tailbone), mediastinum (area between the lungs), and retroperitoneum (the back wall of the abdomen).</p></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__452"><h3>Diagnostic and Staging Evaluation</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__592">Diagnostic evaluation of GCTs includes imaging studies and measurement of tumor markers. In suspected cases, tumor markers can suggest the diagnosis before surgery and/or biopsy. This information can be used by the multidisciplinary team to make appropriate treatment choices.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__593"><h4>Tumor markers</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__453">Yolk sac tumors produce alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), while germinomas (seminomas and dysgerminomas), and especially choriocarcinomas, produce beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (beta-hCG), resulting in elevated serum levels of these substances. Most children with malignant GCTs will have a component of yolk sac tumor and have elevations of AFP levels,[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_54">54</a>
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,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_55">55</a>] which are serially monitored during treatment to help assess response to therapy.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_22">22</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_24">24</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_54">54</a>] Benign teratomas and immature teratomas may produce small elevations of AFP and beta-hCG.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__594">During the first year of life, infants have a wide range of serum AFP levels, which are not associated with the presence of a GCT. Normal ranges have been described but are based on limited data.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_56">56</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_57">57</a>] The serum half-life of AFP is 5 to 7 days, and the serum half-life of beta-hCG is 1 to 2 days. Even though the data are limited, tumor markers are measured with each cycle of chemotherapy for all pediatric patients with malignant GCTs. It should be recognized that after initial chemotherapy, tumor markers may show a transient elevation.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_58">58</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__630">Although few pediatric data exist, adult studies have shown that an unsatisfactory decline of elevated tumor markers is a poor prognostic finding.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_59">59</a>] </p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__595"><h4>Imaging tests</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__596">Imaging tests may include the following:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__597"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Computed tomography (CT) scan of the primary site and chest.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the primary site.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Radionuclide bone scan or positron emission tomography scan (for postpubertal males).
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</div></li></ul></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__631"><h3>Prognosis and Prognostic Factors</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__632">Prognosis and prognostic factors for extracranial GCTs depend on many circumstances, including the following:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__633"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Histology (e.g., seminomatous vs. nonseminomatous).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Age (e.g., young children vs. adolescents).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Stage of disease.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Primary site of disease.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Tumor marker decline (AFP and beta-hCG) in response to therapy.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__645">To better identify prognostic factors, data from five U.S. trials and two U.K. trials for malignant extracranial GCTs in children and adolescents were merged by the Malignant Germ Cell Tumor International Collaborative (MaGIC). The goal was to ascertain the important prognostic factors in 519 young patients, incorporating age at diagnosis, stage, and site of primary tumor, along with pretreatment AFP level and histology. Of these, patients aged 11 years and older with stage III or stage IV extragonadal disease or ovarian stage IV disease had a less than 70% likelihood of long-term disease-free survival, ranging from 40% (extragonadal stage IV) to 67% (ovarian stage IV). AFP levels and histologies other than pure yolk sac were also negative factors, but did not achieve statistical significance at the 0.05 level.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_1_60">60</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335155/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiiDii</a>] This is the first age-focused investigation of these factors in young children and adolescents.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__634">(Refer to the <a href="#CDR0000062854__213">Treatment of Mature and Immature Teratomas in Children</a>, <a href="#CDR0000062854__220">Treatment of Malignant Gonadal GCTs in Children</a>, and <a href="#CDR0000062854__75">Treatment of Malignant Extragonadal Extracranial GCTs in Children</a> sections of this summary for more information about prognosis and prognostic factors for childhood extragonadal extracranial GCTs.)</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__588"><h3>Follow-up After Treatment</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__598">There is little evidence to provide guidance on the follow-up care of children with extracranial GCTs. </p><p id="CDR0000062854__599">The following tests and procedures may be performed at the physician's discretion when tumor markers are elevated at diagnosis:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__600"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>AFP and beta-hCG. Monitor AFP and beta-hCG levels monthly for 6 months (period of highest risk) and then every 3 months, for a total of 2 years (3 years for sacrococcygeal teratoma).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Imaging tests. MRI/CT may be performed at the completion of therapy. Further imaging intervals have not been defined.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__601">The following tests and procedures may be performed at the physician's discretion when tumor markers are normal at diagnosis:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__602"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Imaging tests. Ultrasound or CT/MRI may be performed every 3 months for 2 years and then annually for 5 years for germinomas.</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000062854_rl_1"><h3>References</h3><ol><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_1">Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010. 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[<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8174074" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 8174074</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_45">Schneider DT, Schuster AE, Fritsch MK, et al.: Genetic analysis of mediastinal nonseminomatous germ cell tumors in children and adolescents. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 34 (1): 115-25, 2002. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11921289" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11921289</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_46">McKenney JK, Heerema-McKenney A, Rouse RV: Extragonadal germ cell tumors: a review with emphasis on pathologic features, clinical prognostic variables, and differential diagnostic considerations. Adv Anat Pathol 14 (2): 69-92, 2007. 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[<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3040921" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 3040921</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_49">Lachman MF, Kim K, Koo BC: Mediastinal teratoma associated with Klinefelter's syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med 110 (11): 1067-71, 1986. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3778123" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 3778123</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_50">Coutin AS, Hamy A, Fondevilla M, et al.: [Pure 46XY gonadal dysgenesis] J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris) 25 (8): 792-6, 1996. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9026505" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9026505</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_51">Amice V, Amice J, Bercovici JP, et al.: Gonadal tumor and H-Y antigen in 46,XY pure gonadal dysgenesis. Cancer 57 (7): 1313-7, 1986. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3948114" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 3948114</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_52">Tanaka Y, Sasaki Y, Tachibana K, et al.: Gonadal mixed germ cell tumor combined with a large hemangiomatous lesion in a patient with Turner's syndrome and 45,X/46,X, +mar karyotype. Arch Pathol Lab Med 118 (11): 1135-8, 1994. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7979900" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 7979900</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_53">Kota SK, Gayatri K, Pani JP, et al.: Dysgerminoma in a female with turner syndrome and Y chromosome material: A case-based review of literature. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 16 (3): 436-40, 2012. [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC3354856/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC3354856</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22629515" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 22629515</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_54">Mann JR, Raafat F, Robinson K, et al.: The United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group's second germ cell tumor study: carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin are effective treatment for children with malignant extracranial germ cell tumors, with acceptable toxicity. J Clin Oncol 18 (22): 3809-18, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11078494" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11078494</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_55">Marina N, Fontanesi J, Kun L, et al.: Treatment of childhood germ cell tumors. Review of the St. Jude experience from 1979 to 1988. Cancer 70 (10): 2568-75, 1992. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1384951" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1384951</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_56">Wu JT, Book L, Sudar K: Serum alpha fetoprotein (AFP) levels in normal infants. Pediatr Res 15 (1): 50-2, 1981. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6163129" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 6163129</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_57">Blohm ME, Vesterling-Hörner D, Calaminus G, et al.: Alpha 1-fetoprotein (AFP) reference values in infants up to 2 years of age. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 15 (2): 135-42, 1998 Mar-Apr. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9592840" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9592840</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_58">Vogelzang NJ, Lange PH, Goldman A, et al.: Acute changes of alpha-fetoprotein and human chorionic gonadotropin during induction chemotherapy of germ cell tumors. Cancer Res 42 (11): 4855-61, 1982. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6181870" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 6181870</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_59">Motzer RJ, Nichols CJ, Margolin KA, et al.: Phase III randomized trial of conventional-dose chemotherapy with or without high-dose chemotherapy and autologous hematopoietic stem-cell rescue as first-line treatment for patients with poor-prognosis metastatic germ cell tumors. J Clin Oncol 25 (3): 247-56, 2007. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17235042" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 17235042</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_1_60">Frazier AL, Hale JP, Rodriguez-Galindo C, et al.: Revised risk classification for pediatric extracranial germ cell tumors based on 25 years of clinical trial data from the United Kingdom and United States. J Clin Oncol 33 (2): 195-201, 2015. [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC4279239/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC4279239</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25452439" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 25452439</span></a>]</div></li></ol></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__18"><h2 id="_CDR0000062854__18_">Stage Information for Childhood Extracranial GCTs</h2><p id="CDR0000062854__19">As with other childhood solid tumors, stage directly impacts the outcome of
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patients with malignant germ cell tumors (GCTs).[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_18_1">1</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_18_3">3</a>] The most commonly used staging
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systems in the United States are as follows:[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_18_4">4</a>]</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__462"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__374">Nonseminoma Testicular GCT Staging (Children's Oncology Group [COG])</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__376">Ovarian GCT Staging (COG)</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__378">Ovarian GCT Staging (International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics [FIGO])</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__385">Extragonadal Extracranial GCT Staging (COG)</a>.</div></li></ul><div id="CDR0000062854__374"><h3>Nonseminoma Testicular GCT Staging From the COG</h3><ul id="CDR0000062854__375"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage I:</b> Limited to testis; complete resection by high inguinal orchiectomy or transscrotal resection with no tumor spillage. There must be no evidence of disease beyond the testis by radiologic scans or pathology. </div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage II:</b> Transscrotal orchiectomy with spillage of tumor; microscopic disease in scrotum or high in spermatic cord (>0.5 cm). Tumor markers increase or fail to normalize.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage III:</b> Gross residual disease; retroperitoneal lymph node involvement (>2 cm in boys younger than 10 years).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage IV:</b> Distant metastases, including liver, brain, bone, and lung.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__463">
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Retroperitoneal lymph node dissection has not been required in pediatric germ cell trials to stage disease in males younger than 15 years. Data on adolescent males with testicular GCTs are limited. Retroperitoneal lymph node dissection is used for both staging and treatment in adult testicular GCT trials.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_18_5">5</a>] (Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062899/">Testicular Cancer Treatment</a> for more information about the staging of adult testicular GCTs.)</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__376"><h3>Ovarian GCT Staging From the COG</h3><ul id="CDR0000062854__377"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage I:</b> Localized disease; completely resected without microscopic
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disease in the resected margins or evidence of capsular rupture. Negative peritoneal cytology.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage II:</b> Microscopic residual disease, capsular invasion, or microscopic lymph node involvement.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage III:</b> Gross residual disease, gross lymph node involvement (>2 cm), or cytologic evidence of tumor cells in ascites.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage IV:</b> Disseminated disease involving lungs, liver, brain, or bone.</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000062854__378"><h3>Ovarian GCT Staging From the FIGO</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__379">Another ovarian GCT staging system used frequently by gynecologic oncologists is the
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FIGO staging system, which
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is based on adequate surgical staging at the time of diagnosis.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_18_6">6</a>] (Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062935/">Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors Treatment</a> for more information.) This
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system has also been used by some pediatric centers [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_18_2">2</a>] and is as follows:</p><div id="CDR0000062854__617" class="table"><h3><span class="title">Table 4. FIGO Staging for Carcinoma of the Ovary<sup>a</sup></span></h3><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK65877.4/table/CDR0000062854__617/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__CDR0000062854__617_lrgtbl__"><table class="no_margin"><thead><tr><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">Stage</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">I</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Growth limited to the ovaries.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Ia</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Growth limited to one ovary; no ascites present containing malignant cells. No tumor on the external surface; capsule intact.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Ib</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Growth limited to both ovaries; no ascites present containing malignant cells. No tumor on the external surfaces; capsules intact.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Ic<sup>b</sup></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Tumor either stage Ia or Ib, but with tumor on surface of one or both ovaries, or with capsule ruptured, or with ascites present containing malignant cells, or with positive peritoneal washings.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">II</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Growth involving one or both ovaries with pelvic extension.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">IIa</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Extension and/or metastases to the uterus and/or tubes.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">IIb</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Extension to other pelvic tissues.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">IIc<sup>b</sup></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Tumor either stage IIa or IIb, but with tumor on surface of one or both ovaries, or with capsule(s) ruptured, or with ascites present containing malignant cells, or with positive peritoneal washings.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">III</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Tumor involving one or both ovaries with histologically confirmed peritoneal implants outside the pelvis and/or positive regional lymph nodes. Superficial liver metastases equals stage III. Tumor is limited to the true pelvis, but with histologically proven malignant extension to small bowel or omentum.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">IIIa</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Tumor grossly limited to the true pelvis, with negative nodes, but with histologically confirmed microscopic seeding of abdominal peritoneal surfaces, or histologic proven extension to small bowel or mesentery.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">IIIb</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Tumor of one or both ovaries with histologically confirmed implants, peritoneal metastasis of abdominal peritoneal surfaces, none exceeding 2 cm in diameter; nodes are negative.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">IIIc</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Peritoneal metastasis beyond the pelvis >2 cm in diameter and/or positive regional lymph nodes.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">IV</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Growth involving one or both ovaries with distant metastases. If pleural effusion is present, there must be positive cytology to allot a case to stage IV. Parenchymal liver metastasis equals stage IV.</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin"><sup>a</sup>Adapted from FIGO Committee on Gynecologic Oncology.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_18_7">7</a>]</p></div></dd><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin"><sup>b</sup>In order to evaluate the impact on prognosis of the different criteria for allotting cases to stage Ic or IIc, it is valuable to know whether rupture of the capsule was spontaneous, or caused by the surgeon; and whether the source of malignant cells detected was peritoneal washings or ascites.</p></div></dd></dl></div></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__385"><h3>Extragonadal Extracranial GCT Staging From the COG</h3><ul id="CDR0000062854__386"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage I:</b> Localized disease; complete resection with no microscopic disease at margins or in regional lymph nodes. Tumor markers must normalize in appropriate half-life after resection. Complete coccygectomy for sacrococcygeal site.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage II:</b> Microscopic residual disease, capsular invasion, and/or microscopic lymph node involvement. Tumor markers fail to normalize or increase.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage III:</b> Gross residual disease and gross lymph node involvement (>2 cm).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b>Stage IV:</b> Distant metastases, including liver, brain, bone, or lung.</div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000062854_rl_18"><h3>References</h3><ol><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_18_1">Ablin AR, Krailo MD, Ramsay NK, et al.: Results of treatment of malignant germ cell tumors in 93 children: a report from the Childrens Cancer Study Group. J Clin Oncol 9 (10): 1782-92, 1991. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1717667" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1717667</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_18_2">Mann JR, Pearson D, Barrett A, et al.: Results of the United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group's malignant germ cell tumor studies. Cancer 63 (9): 1657-67, 1989. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2467734" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 2467734</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_18_3">Marina N, Fontanesi J, Kun L, et al.: Treatment of childhood germ cell tumors. Review of the St. Jude experience from 1979 to 1988. Cancer 70 (10): 2568-75, 1992. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1384951" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1384951</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_18_4">Brodeur GM, Howarth CB, Pratt CB, et al.: Malignant germ cell tumors in 57 children and adolescents. Cancer 48 (8): 1890-8, 1981. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7284981" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 7284981</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_18_5">de Wit R, Fizazi K: Controversies in the management of clinical stage I testis cancer. J Clin Oncol 24 (35): 5482-92, 2006. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17158533" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 17158533</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_18_6">Cannistra SA: Cancer of the ovary. N Engl J Med 329 (21): 1550-9, 1993. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8155119" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 8155119</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_18_7">FIGO Committee on Gynecologic Oncology: Current FIGO staging for cancer of the vagina, fallopian tube, ovary, and gestational trophoblastic neoplasia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 105 (1): 3-4, 2009. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19322933" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 19322933</span></a>]</div></li></ol></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__44"><h2 id="_CDR0000062854__44_">Treatment Option Overview for Childhood Extracranial GCTs</h2><p id="CDR0000062854__414">Childhood extracranial germ cell tumors (GCTs) are very heterogenous. The benefits and limitations of therapy are related to differences in histology. For example, pediatric GCTs, such as mature and immature teratomas, may not respond to chemotherapy.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__464">Prognosis and appropriate treatment for extracranial GCTs depend on many factors, including the following:[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_1">1</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_4">4</a>] </p><ul id="CDR0000062854__465"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Histology (e.g., seminomatous vs. nonseminomatous).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Age (e.g., young children vs. adolescents).</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Stage of disease.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Primary site of disease.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__466">To maximize the likelihood of long-term survival while minimizing the likelihood of treatment-related long-term sequelae (e.g., secondary leukemias, infertility, hearing loss, and renal dysfunction), children with extracranial malignant GCTs need to be cared for at pediatric cancer centers with experience treating these rare tumors. </p><p id="CDR0000062854__467">On the basis of clinical factors, appropriate treatment for extracranial GCTs may involve one of the following: </p><ul id="CDR0000062854__468"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Surgical resection followed by careful monitoring for disease recurrence.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Initial surgical resection followed by platinum-based chemotherapy.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Diagnostic tumor biopsy and preoperative platinum-based chemotherapy followed by definitive tumor resection.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_5">5</a>]</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__469">For patients with completely resected immature teratomas at any location (even those with malignant elements) and patients with localized, completely resected (stage I) gonadal tumors, additional therapy may not be necessary; however, close monitoring is important.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_6">6</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_7">7</a>] The watch-and-wait approach requires scheduled serial physical examination, tumor marker determination, and primary tumor imaging to ensure that a recurrent tumor is detected without delay. </p><div id="CDR0000062854__415"><h3>Surgery</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__416">Surgery is an essential component of treatment. Specific treatments will be discussed for each tumor type.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__470"><h3>Radiation Therapy</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__471">Testicular and mediastinal seminomas in males and ovarian dysgerminomas in females are sensitive to radiation, but radiation therapy is rarely recommended. With the advent of effective chemotherapy, it became possible for patients to avoid the toxic effects of radiation.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__418"><h3>Chemotherapy</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__137">Before effective chemotherapy became available, children with extracranial malignant GCTs had 3-year survival rates of 15% to 20% with surgery and radiation therapy,[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_8">8</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_10">10</a>] although young boys with localized testicular tumors did well with surgical resection.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_11">11</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_12">12</a>] Cisplatin-based chemotherapy has significantly improved outcomes for most children and adolescents with extracranial GCTs; 5-year survival rates now exceed 90%. </p><p id="CDR0000062854__286">The standard chemotherapy regimen for both adults and children with malignant nonseminomatous GCTs includes cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin. Adult patients receive weekly bleomycin throughout treatment (bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin [BEP]). Pediatric patients do not receive bleomycin during the weeks between cycles (cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin [PEB]). (Refer to <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK65877.4/table/CDR0000062854__156/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figCDR0000062854156" rid-ob="figobCDR0000062854156">Table 5</a> for adult BEP and pediatric PEB and JEB chemotherapy dosing schedules.)[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_1">1</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_2">2</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_13">13</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_15">15</a>] The combination of carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin (JEB) underwent clinical investigation in the United Kingdom in children younger than 16 years and was reported to have an event-free survival (EFS) by site and stage similar to that of PEB.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_3">3</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_16">16</a>] The use of JEB appears to be associated with fewer otologic toxic effects and renal toxic effects than does the use of PEB.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_3">3</a>] PEB and JEB have not been compared in a randomized pediatric GCT trial.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__472">Adult studies have substituted standard-dose carboplatin for cisplatin in combination with etoposide alone and in combination with etoposide and low-dose bleomycin,[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_17">17</a>] but the carboplatin regimens demonstrated inferior EFS and overall survival (OS) compared with cisplatin-containing therapy among patients with malignant GCTs. </p><p id="CDR0000062854__473">Refer to Table 5 for adult BEP and pediatric PEB and JEB chemotherapy dosing schedules.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__156" class="table"><h3><span class="title"> Table 5. Comparison of Adult BEP and Pediatric PEB and JEB Chemotherapy Dosing Schedules<sup>a</sup></span></h3><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK65877.4/table/CDR0000062854__156/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__CDR0000062854__156_lrgtbl__"><table class="no_margin"><thead><tr><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Regimen</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Bleomycin</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Etoposide</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Cisplatin</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Carboplatin</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Adult BEP (every 21 days)<sup>b</sup> [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_15">15</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_18">18</a>]</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">30 units/m<sup>2</sup>, days 1, 8, 15</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">100 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, days 1–5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">20 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, days 1–5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Pediatric PEB (every 21 days) [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_1">1</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_2">2</a>]</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">15 units/m², day 1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">100 mg/m², days 1–5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">20 mg/m², days 1–5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Pediatric JEB (every 21–28 days) [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_3">3</a>]</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">15 units/m², day 3 </td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">120 mg/m², days 1–3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">600 mg/m² or GFR-based dosing, day 2</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin">BEP = bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin; GFR = glomerular filtration rate; JEB = carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin; PEB = cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin.</p></div></dd><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin"><sup>a</sup>Adult doses of PEB and JEB chemotherapy differ from pediatric doses. </p></div></dd><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin"><sup>b</sup>The adult BEP regimen is provided here for comparison only; BEP is not used in the treatment of children.</p></div></dd></dl></div></div></div><p id="CDR0000062854__287">The approach to the management of extracranial GCTs has been derived from the results of several intergroup studies conducted by the Children's Cancer Group (CCG) and the Pediatric Oncology Group (POG).[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_1">1</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_2">2</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_6">6</a>] These studies explored the use of PEB for the treatment of localized gonadal GCT [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_1">1</a>] and the benefit of increasing the dose of cisplatin (high-dose PEB [HD-PEB]: a cisplatin concentration of 200 mg/m<sup>2</sup> vs. PEB: a cisplatin concentration of 100 mg/m<sup>2</sup>)
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in a randomized manner in patients with
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extragonadal and advanced gonadal GCTs.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_2">2</a>] The intensification of cisplatin in the HD-PEB regimen provided some improvement in EFS but no difference in OS; however, the use of HD-PEB was associated with a significantly higher incidence and severity of otologic toxic effects and renal toxic effects. In a subsequent study, amifostine was not effective in preventing hearing loss in patients who received HD-PEB.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_19">19</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__139"> Table 6 provides an
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overview of standard treatment options for children with extracranial GCTs. Specific details of treatment by primary site and clinical condition are described in subsequent sections.
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</p><div id="CDR0000062854__587" class="table"><h3><span class="title">Table 6. Standard Treatment Options for Childhood Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors (GCTs)</span></h3><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK65877.4/table/CDR0000062854__587/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__CDR0000062854__587_lrgtbl__"><table class="no_margin"><thead><tr><th colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Histology</th><th colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Standard Treatment Options</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Mature teratoma (nonsacrococcygeal)</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__474">Surgery and observation</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;">Immature teratoma (nonsacrococcygeal)</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__604">Surgery and observation (stage I)</a>
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</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__609">Surgery and chemotherapy (stages II–IV)</a> (refer to the <a href="#CDR0000062854__70">Childhood Malignant Ovarian GCTs</a> section of this summary for specific information about the treatment of ovarian immature teratoma)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Mature and immature teratomas (sacrococcygeal)</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__310">Surgery and observation</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Malignant gonadal GCTs in children:</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Childhood malignant testicular GCTs:</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;">Malignant testicular GCTs in prepubertal males</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__532">Surgery and observation (stage I)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__535">Surgery and chemotherapy (PEB) (stages II–IV)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Malignant testicular GCTs in postpubertal males</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062899/">Testicular Cancer Treatment</a> for more information.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Childhood malignant ovarian GCTs:</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;">Dysgerminomas of the ovary</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__538">Surgery and observation (stage I)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__541">Surgery and chemotherapy (PEB) (stages II–IV)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:top;"></td><td colspan="1" rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:top;">Malignant nongerminomatous ovarian GCTs (yolk sac and mixed GCTs)</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__545">Surgery and observation (stage I)</a> (refer to the <a href="#CDR0000062854__70">Childhood Malignant Ovarian GCTs</a> section of this summary for specific information about the treatment of ovarian immature teratoma)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__549">Surgery and chemotherapy (PEB) (stage I and stages II–IV)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__552">Biopsy followed by chemotherapy (PEB) and surgery (initially unresectable tumors)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;">Malignant extragonadal extracranial GCTs in children</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__555">Surgery and chemotherapy (PEB)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;"><a href="#CDR0000062854__555">Biopsy followed by chemotherapy (PEB) and possibly surgery</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Recurrent malignant GCTs in children </td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align:top;">Refer to the <a href="#CDR0000062854__79">Treatment of Recurrent Malignant GCTs in Children</a> section of this summary for more information.</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_margin">PEB = cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin.</p></div></dd></dl></div></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__397"><h3>GCT With Non-GCT Elements</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__398">The treatment of GCTs with other non-GCT elements is complex, and few data exist to direct treatment. In adolescents, central primitive neuroectodermal tumors and sarcomas have been found in teratomas.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_20">20</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_21">21</a>] The Italian Pediatric Germ Cell Tumor group identified 14 patients with malignant somatic tumors, such as neuroblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma, embedded in teratomas (<2% of extracranial GCTs).[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_44_22">22</a>] The optimal treatment strategy for GCTs with non-GCT elements has not been determined, and separate treatments for both malignant GCTs and non-GCT elements may be required.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854_rl_44"><h3>References</h3><ol><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_1">Rogers PC, Olson TA, Cullen JW, et al.: Treatment of children and adolescents with stage II testicular and stages I and II ovarian malignant germ cell tumors: A Pediatric Intergroup Study--Pediatric Oncology Group 9048 and Children's Cancer Group 8891. J Clin Oncol 22 (17): 3563-9, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15337806" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15337806</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_2">Cushing B, Giller R, Cullen JW, et al.: Randomized comparison of combination chemotherapy with etoposide, bleomycin, and either high-dose or standard-dose cisplatin in children and adolescents with high-risk malignant germ cell tumors: a pediatric intergroup study--Pediatric Oncology Group 9049 and Children's Cancer Group 8882. J Clin Oncol 22 (13): 2691-700, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15226336" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15226336</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_3">Mann JR, Raafat F, Robinson K, et al.: The United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group's second germ cell tumor study: carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin are effective treatment for children with malignant extracranial germ cell tumors, with acceptable toxicity. J Clin Oncol 18 (22): 3809-18, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11078494" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11078494</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_4">Göbel U, Schneider DT, Calaminus G, et al.: Multimodal treatment of malignant sacrococcygeal germ cell tumors: a prospective analysis of 66 patients of the German cooperative protocols MAKEI 83/86 and 89. J Clin Oncol 19 (7): 1943-50, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11283126" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11283126</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_5">Rescorla FJ: Pediatric germ cell tumors. Semin Surg Oncol 16 (2): 144-58, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9988869" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9988869</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_6">Marina NM, Cushing B, Giller R, et al.: Complete surgical excision is effective treatment for children with immature teratomas with or without malignant elements: A Pediatric Oncology Group/Children's Cancer Group Intergroup Study. J Clin Oncol 17 (7): 2137-43, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10561269" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10561269</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_7">Schlatter M, Rescorla F, Giller R, et al.: Excellent outcome in patients with stage I germ cell tumors of the testes: a study of the Children's Cancer Group/Pediatric Oncology Group. J Pediatr Surg 38 (3): 319-24; discussion 319-24, 2003. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12632342" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 12632342</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_8">Kurman RJ, Norris HJ: Endodermal sinus tumor of the ovary: a clinical and pathologic analysis of 71 cases. Cancer 38 (6): 2404-19, 1976. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/63318" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 63318</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_9">Chretien PB, Milam JD, Foote FW, et al.: Embryonal adenocarcinomas (a type of malignant teratoma) of the sacrococcygeal region. Clinical and pathologic aspects of 21 cases. Cancer 26 (3): 522-35, 1970. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5458260" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 5458260</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_10">Billmire DF, Grosfeld JL: Teratomas in childhood: analysis of 142 cases. J Pediatr Surg 21 (6): 548-51, 1986. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2425069" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 2425069</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_11">Hawkins EP, Finegold MJ, Hawkins HK, et al.: Nongerminomatous malignant germ cell tumors in children. A review of 89 cases from the Pediatric Oncology Group, 1971-1984. Cancer 58 (12): 2579-84, 1986. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3022907" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 3022907</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_12">Marina N, Fontanesi J, Kun L, et al.: Treatment of childhood germ cell tumors. Review of the St. Jude experience from 1979 to 1988. Cancer 70 (10): 2568-75, 1992. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1384951" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1384951</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_13">de Wit R, Roberts JT, Wilkinson PM, et al.: Equivalence of three or four cycles of bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin chemotherapy and of a 3- or 5-day schedule in good-prognosis germ cell cancer: a randomized study of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Genitourinary Tract Cancer Cooperative Group and the Medical Research Council. J Clin Oncol 19 (6): 1629-40, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11250991" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11250991</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_14">Gershenson DM, Morris M, Cangir A, et al.: Treatment of malignant germ cell tumors of the ovary with bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin. J Clin Oncol 8 (4): 715-20, 1990. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1690272" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1690272</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_15">Williams SD, Birch R, Einhorn LH, et al.: Treatment of disseminated germ-cell tumors with cisplatin, bleomycin, and either vinblastine or etoposide. N Engl J Med 316 (23): 1435-40, 1987. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2437455" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 2437455</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_16">Stern JW, Bunin N: Prospective study of carboplatin-based chemotherapy for pediatric germ cell tumors. Med Pediatr Oncol 39 (3): 163-7, 2002. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12210444" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 12210444</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_17">Horwich A, Sleijfer DT, Fosså SD, et al.: Randomized trial of bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin compared with bleomycin, etoposide, and carboplatin in good-prognosis metastatic nonseminomatous germ cell cancer: a Multiinstitutional Medical Research Council/European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Trial. J Clin Oncol 15 (5): 1844-52, 1997. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9164194" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9164194</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_18">Einhorn LH, Williams SD, Loehrer PJ, et al.: Evaluation of optimal duration of chemotherapy in favorable-prognosis disseminated germ cell tumors: a Southeastern Cancer Study Group protocol. J Clin Oncol 7 (3): 387-91, 1989. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2465391" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 2465391</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_19">Marina N, Chang KW, Malogolowkin M, et al.: Amifostine does not protect against the ototoxicity of high-dose cisplatin combined with etoposide and bleomycin in pediatric germ-cell tumors: a Children's Oncology Group study. Cancer 104 (4): 841-7, 2005. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15999362" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15999362</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_20">Ehrlich Y, Beck SD, Ulbright TM, et al.: Outcome analysis of patients with transformed teratoma to primitive neuroectodermal tumor. Ann Oncol 21 (9): 1846-50, 2010. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20231305" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 20231305</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_21">Rice KR, Magers MJ, Beck SD, et al.: Management of germ cell tumors with somatic type malignancy: pathological features, prognostic factors and survival outcomes. J Urol 192 (5): 1403-9, 2014. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24952240" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 24952240</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_44_22">Terenziani M, D'Angelo P, Bisogno G, et al.: Teratoma with a malignant somatic component in pediatric patients: the Associazione Italiana Ematologia Oncologia Pediatrica (AIEOP) experience. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (4): 532-7, 2010. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20049928" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 20049928</span></a>]</div></li></ol></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__213"><h2 id="_CDR0000062854__213_">Treatment of Mature and Immature Teratomas in Children</h2><p id="CDR0000062854__387">Mature and immature teratomas arise primarily in the sacrococcygeal region of neonates and young children and in the ovaries of pubescent girls. Less commonly, these tumors are found in the testicular region of boys younger than 4 years, the mediastinum of adolescents, and other sites.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_1">1</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_3">3</a>] The primary treatment for teratomas is surgery and depends on whether the tumor forms in a nonsacrococcygeal or sacrococcygeal site. Surgical options for sacrococcygeal teratomas are complex. The number of pediatric patients with postoperative residual mature or immature teratomas is very small.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__217"><h3>Mature Teratomas (Nonsacrococcygeal Sites)</h3><div id="CDR0000062854__474"><h4>Standard treatment options for mature teratomas (nonsacrococcygeal sites)</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__475">Standard treatment options for mature teratomas in a nonsacrococcygeal site include the following:</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__496"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Surgery and observation.</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__218">Children with mature teratomas, including mature teratomas of the mediastinum, can be treated with surgery and observation, with an excellent prognosis.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_1">1</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_4">4</a>] In a review of 153 children with nontesticular mature teratoma, the 6-year relapse-free survival was 96% for completely resected disease and 55% for incompletely resected disease.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_2">2</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__477">Head and neck germ cell tumors (GCTs) in neonates should be cared for by a multidisciplinary team. Although most head and neck GCTs are benign, they present significant challenges to surgeons. Some tumors develop malignant elements, which may change the treatment strategy.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_5">5</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__478">Mature teratomas in the prepubertal testis are relatively common benign lesions and may be amenable to testis-sparing surgery.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_6">6</a>]
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</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__479"><h3>Immature Teratomas (Nonsacrococcygeal Sites)</h3><div id="CDR0000062854__480"><h4>Standard treatment options for immature teratomas (nonsacrococcygeal sites)</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__481">Standard treatment options for immature teratomas in a nonsacrococcygeal site include the following:</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__497"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__604">Surgery and observation (stage I)</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__609">Surgery (stages II through IV)</a>.</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__603">The treatment options for immature teratomas at a nonsacrococcygeal site differ by stage of disease.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__604"><h5>Stage I</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__605">Infants and young children with immature teratomas have an excellent prognosis if the tumor can be completely resected.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_7">7</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_9">9</a>] For these patients, the current standard of treatment is surgery and observation.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__606">Evidence (surgery and observation for stage I disease):</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__607"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The benefit of adjuvant chemotherapy for children was investigated in a study by the Pediatric Oncology Group and Children's Cancer Group. Surgical resection followed by careful observation was used to treat patients with immature teratomas.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_10">10</a>]<ul id="CDR0000062854__608"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Surgery alone was curative for most children and adolescents with resected ovarian immature teratomas of any grade, even when elevated levels of serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) or microscopic foci of yolk sac tumor were present.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The study demonstrated a 3-year event-free survival of 97.8% for patients with ovarian tumors, 100% for patients with testicular tumors, and 80% for patients with extragonadal tumors.</div></li></ul></div></li></ol></div><div id="CDR0000062854__609"><h5>Stages II through IV</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__610">There is significant debate on the responsiveness of immature teratomas to chemotherapy. In adults, and perhaps adolescents, immature teratomas (primarily ovarian) reportedly have an aggressive clinical behavior [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_11">11</a>] requiring surgery and chemotherapy. The decision to use chemotherapy is based on the tumor stage (II through IV) and grade. In a pediatric report from the United Kingdom, immature teratomas did not respond to chemotherapy.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_12">12</a>] This study did not include patients older than 15 years. Further studies on the treatment of ovarian immature teratomas with chemotherapy are needed. (Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062935/">Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors Treatment</a> for more information about the treatment of ovarian immature teratomas in postpubertal females.)</p></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__214"><h3>Mature and Immature Teratomas (Sacrococcygeal Site)</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__215">The sacrococcygeal region is the primary tumor site for most benign and malignant GCTs diagnosed in neonates, infants, and children younger than 4 years. These tumors occur more often in girls than in boys; ratios of 3:1 to 4:1 have been reported.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_13">13</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__488">Sacrococcygeal tumors present in the following two clinical patterns related to the child’s age, tumor location, and likelihood of tumor malignancy:[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_1">1</a>]</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__489"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Neonates: Neonatal tumors present at birth protruding from the sacral site and are usually mature or immature teratomas.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Infants and young children: In infants and young children, the tumor presents as a palpable mass in the sacro-pelvic region, compressing the bladder or rectum. These pelvic tumors are more likely to be malignant. An early survey found that the rate of tumor malignancy was 48% for girls and 67% for boys older than 2 months at the time of sacrococcygeal tumor diagnosis, compared with a malignant tumor incidence of 7% for girls and 10% for boys younger than 2 months at the time of diagnosis.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_14">14</a>] The pelvic site of the primary tumor has been reported to be an adverse prognostic factor, perhaps as a result of delayed diagnosis because it was unappreciated at birth or because of incomplete resection at the time of original surgery.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_14">14</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_17">17</a>]</div></li></ul><div id="CDR0000062854__310"><h4>Standard treatment options for mature and immature teratomas (sacrococcygeal sites)</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__490">Standard treatment options for mature and immature teratomas in a sacrococcygeal site include the following:</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__491"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Surgery and observation.</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__216">Surgery is an essential component of treatment. Complete resection of the coccyx is vital to minimize the likelihood of tumor recurrence;[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_2">2</a>] however, one study reported that 11 of 12 patients with microscopic residual benign immature teratomas had no recurrence.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_18">18</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__635">After successful resection, neonates diagnosed with benign mature and immature teratomas are closely observed with follow-up exams and serial serum AFP determinations for several years to ensure that the expected physiological normalization of AFP levels occurs and to facilitate early detection of tumor relapse.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_19">19</a>] A significant rate of recurrence among these benign tumors, ranging from 10% to 21%, has been reported by several groups, with most relapses occurring within 3 years of resection.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_9">9</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_13">13</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_19">19</a>
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,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_20">20</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__492">While there is no standard follow-up schedule, tumor markers are measured frequently for 3 years in all children. Recurrent tumors will be malignant in 43% to 50% of cases, and yolk sac tumor is the most common histology. With early detection, recurrent malignant GCTs can be treated successfully with surgery and chemotherapy (overall survival, 92%).[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_21">21</a>] Long-term survivors are monitored for complications of extensive surgery, which include constipation, fecal and urinary incontinence, and psychologically unacceptable cosmetic scars.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_213_22">22</a>]</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_213_sid_4"><h3>Current Clinical Trials</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_213_20">Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with
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<a href="http://www.cancer.gov/search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=43494&tt=1&format=2" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">childhood teratoma</a>. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_213_21">General information about clinical trials is also available from the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI website</a>.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854_rl_213"><h3>References</h3><ol><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_1">Rescorla FJ: Pediatric germ cell tumors. Semin Surg Oncol 16 (2): 144-58, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9988869" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9988869</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_2">Göbel U, Calaminus G, Engert J, et al.: Teratomas in infancy and childhood. Med Pediatr Oncol 31 (1): 8-15, 1998. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9607423" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9607423</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_3">Pinkerton CR: Malignant germ cell tumours in childhood. Eur J Cancer 33 (6): 895-901; discussion 901-2, 1997. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9291812" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9291812</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_4">Schneider DT, Calaminus G, Reinhard H, et al.: Primary mediastinal germ cell tumors in children and adolescents: results of the German cooperative protocols MAKEI 83/86, 89, and 96. J Clin Oncol 18 (4): 832-9, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10673525" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10673525</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_5">Bernbeck B, Schneider DT, Bernbeck B, et al.: Germ cell tumors of the head and neck: report from the MAKEI Study Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (2): 223-6, 2009. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18937314" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 18937314</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_6">Metcalfe PD, Farivar-Mohseni H, Farhat W, et al.: Pediatric testicular tumors: contemporary incidence and efficacy of testicular preserving surgery. J Urol 170 (6 Pt 1): 2412-5; discussion 2415-6, 2003. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14634440" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 14634440</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_7">Valdiserri RO, Yunis EJ: Sacrococcygeal teratomas: a review of 68 cases. Cancer 48 (1): 217-21, 1981. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6165455" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 6165455</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_8">Carter D, Bibro MC, Touloukian RJ: Benign clinical behavior of immature mediastinal teratoma in infancy and childhood: report of two cases and review of the literature. Cancer 49 (2): 398-402, 1982. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7053836" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 7053836</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_9">Gonzalez-Crussi F, Winkler RF, Mirkin DL: Sacrococcygeal teratomas in infants and children: relationship of histology and prognosis in 40 cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med 102 (8): 420-5, 1978. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/580884" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 580884</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_10">Marina NM, Cushing B, Giller R, et al.: Complete surgical excision is effective treatment for children with immature teratomas with or without malignant elements: A Pediatric Oncology Group/Children's Cancer Group Intergroup Study. J Clin Oncol 17 (7): 2137-43, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10561269" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10561269</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_11">Norris HJ, Zirkin HJ, Benson WL: Immature (malignant) teratoma of the ovary: a clinical and pathologic study of 58 cases. Cancer 37 (5): 2359-72, 1976. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1260722" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1260722</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_12">Mann JR, Gray ES, Thornton C, et al.: Mature and immature extracranial teratomas in children: the UK Children's Cancer Study Group Experience. J Clin Oncol 26 (21): 3590-7, 2008. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18541896" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 18541896</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_13">Rescorla FJ, Sawin RS, Coran AG, et al.: Long-term outcome for infants and children with sacrococcygeal teratoma: a report from the Childrens Cancer Group. J Pediatr Surg 33 (2): 171-6, 1998. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9498381" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9498381</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_14">Altman RP, Randolph JG, Lilly JR: Sacrococcygeal teratoma: American Academy of Pediatrics Surgical Section Survey-1973. J Pediatr Surg 9 (3): 389-98, 1974. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4843993" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 4843993</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_15">Ablin AR, Krailo MD, Ramsay NK, et al.: Results of treatment of malignant germ cell tumors in 93 children: a report from the Childrens Cancer Study Group. J Clin Oncol 9 (10): 1782-92, 1991. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1717667" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1717667</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_16">Marina N, Fontanesi J, Kun L, et al.: Treatment of childhood germ cell tumors. Review of the St. Jude experience from 1979 to 1988. Cancer 70 (10): 2568-75, 1992. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1384951" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1384951</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_17">Baranzelli MC, Kramar A, Bouffet E, et al.: Prognostic factors in children with localized malignant nonseminomatous germ cell tumors. J Clin Oncol 17 (4): 1212, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10561181" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10561181</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_18">De Backer A, Madern GC, Hakvoort-Cammel FG, et al.: Study of the factors associated with recurrence in children with sacrococcygeal teratoma. J Pediatr Surg 41 (1): 173-81; discussion 173-81, 2006. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16410129" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 16410129</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_19">Huddart SN, Mann JR, Robinson K, et al.: Sacrococcygeal teratomas: the UK Children's Cancer Study Group's experience. I. Neonatal. Pediatr Surg Int 19 (1-2): 47-51, 2003. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12721723" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 12721723</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_20">Gabra HO, Jesudason EC, McDowell HP, et al.: Sacrococcygeal teratoma--a 25-year experience in a UK regional center. J Pediatr Surg 41 (9): 1513-6, 2006. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16952583" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 16952583</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_21">De Corti F, Sarnacki S, Patte C, et al.: Prognosis of malignant sacrococcygeal germ cell tumours according to their natural history and surgical management. Surg Oncol 21 (2): e31-7, 2012. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22459912" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 22459912</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_213_22">Derikx JP, De Backer A, van de Schoot L, et al.: Long-term functional sequelae of sacrococcygeal teratoma: a national study in The Netherlands. J Pediatr Surg 42 (6): 1122-6, 2007. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17560233" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 17560233</span></a>]</div></li></ol></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__220"><h2 id="_CDR0000062854__220_"> Treatment of Malignant Gonadal GCTs in Children</h2><div id="CDR0000062854__60"><h3>Childhood Malignant Testicular GCTs</h3><div id="CDR0000062854__61"><h4>Malignant testicular GCTs in prepubertal males</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__62">Testicular germ cell tumors (GCTs) in children occur almost exclusively in boys
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younger than 4 years.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_1">1</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_2">2</a>] The initial surgical approach to evaluate a testicular mass in a young boy is important because a transscrotal biopsy can risk inguinal node metastasis.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_3">3</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_4">4</a>] Radical inguinal orchiectomy with initial high
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ligation of the spermatic cord is the procedure of choice.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_5">5</a>]
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</p><p id="CDR0000062854__493">Computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging evaluation, with the additional information provided by elevated tumor markers, appears adequate for staging. Retroperitoneal
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dissection of lymph nodes is not beneficial in the staging of testicular GCTs in young boys.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_3">3</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_4">4</a>] Therefore, there is no reason to risk the potential morbidity (e.g., impotence and retrograde ejaculation) associated with lymph node dissection.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_6">6</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_7">7</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__499">The role of surgery at diagnosis for GCTs is age- and site-dependent and must be individualized. All malignant testicular GCTs should be resected. Primary resection of other areas of disease may be appropriate when feasible, without undue risk of damage to adjacent structures; otherwise, an appropriate strategy is resection of the testis for diagnosis followed by subsequent excision in selected patients who have residual masses after undergoing chemotherapy.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__289"><h5>Standard treatment options for malignant GCTs in prepubertal males</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__494">Standard treatment options for malignant GCTs in prepubertal males (younger than 15 years) include the following:</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__495"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__532">Surgery and observation (stage I)</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__535">Surgery and chemotherapy (stages II through IV)</a>.</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__500">The treatment options for malignant GCTs in prepubertal males differ by stage of disease.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__532"><h5>Stage I</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__533">Surgery and close follow-up observation are indicated to document that a normalization of the tumor markers occurs after resection.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_3">3</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">8</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__501">Evidence (surgery and observation for stage I disease):</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__534"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A Children’s Cancer Group (CCG)/Pediatric Oncology Group (POG) clinical
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trial evaluated surgery followed by observation for boys aged 10 years or younger with stage I
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testicular tumors.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_3">3</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_4">4</a>]<ul id="CDR0000062854__503"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>This treatment strategy resulted in a 6-year event-free survival (EFS) of 82%. </div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Boys who developed recurrent disease received salvage therapy with four cycles of standard-dose cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin (PEB), with a 6-year survival of 100%.</div></li></ul></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A subsequent Children’s Oncology Group (COG) study of 80 boys younger than 15 years with stage I disease included 15 boys aged 11 to 15 years who were treated with surgery and observation.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_9">9</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335144/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiA</a>]<ul id="CDR0000062854__657"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The 4-year EFS was 80% for the 65 boys younger than 11 years at diagnosis and 48% for the 15 boys aged 11 years and older (<i>P</i> < .01). The 4-year overall survival (OS) for all 80 patients was 100%. </div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Favorable prognostic factors were younger age, presence of pure yolk sac tumor, and lack of lymphovascular invasion by the primary tumor.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Adult testicular staging systems classify patients with lymphovascular invasion as stage IB. In the entire cohort, those with lymphovascular invasion had a lower 4-year EFS (62% vs. 84%).</div></li></ul></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A German study (MAHO 98) of 128 boys younger than 10 years with testis GCTs, mostly stage I, also evaluated surgery followed by observation.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_10">10</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335144/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiA</a>]<ul id="CDR0000062854__619"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>There were 49 patients with yolk sac tumors that were staged as IA after inguinal orchiectomy. Stage IA includes negative lymphovascular invasion. The 5-year EFS was 95% and the 5-year OS was 100% for this group; only two patients relapsed and then were cured after chemotherapy.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>There were 12 patients who initially had transscrotal orchiectomy who were pathologically confirmed to have no lymphovascular invasion (would be considered stage IA, if not for surgery). Ten patients were observed and had no events. Two patients relapsed (17%) and remained in continuous remission after chemotherapy. No patients had hemiscrotectomy. A long-standing question has been whether transscrotal orchiectomy necessitates chemotherapy or hemiscrotectomy. Although the study contained few patients, the latter data suggest that in the absence of lymphovascular invasion, observation might be appropriate.</div></li></ul></div></li></ol></div><div id="CDR0000062854__535"><h5>Stages II through IV</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__536">Surgery and chemotherapy with four cycles of standard PEB is a common treatment regimen. Patients treated with this regimen have an OS outcome greater than 90%, suggesting that a reduction in therapy could be considered.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_11">11</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_12">12</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__537">Surgery and treatment with four to six cycles of carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin (JEB) is an alternative treatment regimen.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">8</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__504">Evidence (surgery and chemotherapy for stages II–IV disease):</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__505"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A CCG/POG clinical
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trial evaluated boys younger than 10 years with stage II tumors who were treated with four cycles of PEB after diagnosis.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_11">11</a>] <ul id="CDR0000062854__506"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The 6-year EFS and OS rates were 100%.</div></li></ul></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>In the same CCG/POG clinical trial, boys and adolescents (age not limited to 10 years or younger) with stage III and stage IV testicular tumors were treated with surgical resection followed by four cycles of standard-dose PEB or high-dose PEB (HD-PEB) therapy.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_12">12</a>] <ul id="CDR0000062854__507"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The 6-year survival outcome for males younger than 15 years with stage III and stage IV tumors was 100%.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The 6-year EFS for males younger than 15 years was 100% for stage III tumors and 94% for stage IV tumors.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The use of HD-PEB therapy did not improve the outcome for these boys but did cause increased incidence of otologic toxic effects. </div></li></ul></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Excellent outcomes for boys with testicular GCTs using surgery and observation for stage I tumors and JEB and other cisplatin-containing chemotherapy regimens for stage II, stage III, and stage IV tumors have also been reported by European investigators.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_6">6</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">8</a>] </div></li></ol></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__66"><h4>Malignant testicular GCTs in postpubertal males</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__68"> The
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treatment options described above for young boys may not be strictly applicable
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to adolescent males (aged 15 years and older).
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In particular, the use of retroperitoneal lymph node dissection may play a crucial role in the evaluation of early-stage testicular GCT [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_13">13</a>] and for residual disease after chemotherapy for the treatment of metastatic GCT.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_14">14</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_15">15</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__509">In this age group, the presence of a sarcomatous component in the primary testis GCT does not alter the prognosis; however, if a sarcomatous component is found in a metastatic lesion, survival is likely to be compromised.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_16">16</a>]</p><div id="CDR0000062854__510"><h5>Standard treatment options for malignant testicular GCTs in postpubertal males</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__67">Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062899/">Testicular Cancer Treatment</a> for more information about the treatment of malignant testicular GCTs in postpubertal males.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_60_sid_2"><h4>Current Clinical Trials</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_60_20">Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with
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<a href="http://www.cancer.gov/search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=43495&tt=1&format=2" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">childhood malignant testicular germ cell tumor</a>. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_60_21">General information about clinical trials is also available from the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI website</a>.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__70"><h3>Childhood Malignant Ovarian GCTs</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__144">Most ovarian neoplasms in children and adolescents are of germ cell origin.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_1">1</a>] Ovarian GCTs are very rare in young girls, but the incidence begins to increase in children aged approximately 8 or 9 years and continues to rise throughout adulthood.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_1">1</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__511">Childhood malignant ovarian GCTs can be divided into germinomatous (dysgerminomas) and nongerminomatous malignant GCTs (i.e., yolk sac carcinomas, mixed GCTs, choriocarcinoma, and embryonal carcinomas). </p><p id="CDR0000062854__513">(Refer to the <a href="#CDR0000062854__217">Mature Teratomas [Nonsacrococcygeal Sites]</a> section of this summary for more information about childhood mature and immature teratomas arising in the ovary and the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062935/">Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors Treatment</a> for more information about the treatment of ovarian GCT in postpubertal females.)</p><div id="CDR0000062854__423"><h4>Dysgerminomas of the ovary</h4><div id="CDR0000062854__514"><h5>Standard treatment options for dysgerminomas of the ovary</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__515">Standard treatment options for dysgerminomas of the ovary include the following:</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__516"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__538">Surgery and observation (stage I)</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__541">Surgery and chemotherapy (stages II through IV)</a>.</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__517">The treatment options for dysgerminomas of the ovary differ by stage of disease.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__538"><h5>Stage I</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__539">For stage I ovarian dysgerminomas of the ovary, cure can usually be achieved by unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy, conserving the uterus and opposite ovary, and close follow-up observation.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">8</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_17">17</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_20">20</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__540">Chemotherapy may be given if tumor markers do not normalize or if the tumor recurs.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__541"><h5>Stages II through IV</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__542">While advanced-stage ovarian dysgerminomas, like testicular seminomas, are highly curable with surgery and radiation therapy, the effects on growth, fertility, and risk of treatment-induced second malignancy in these young patients [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_21">21</a>
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,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_22">22</a>] make chemotherapy a more attractive adjunct to surgery.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_23">23</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_24">24</a>] Complete tumor resection is the goal for advanced dysgerminomas; platinum-based chemotherapy can be given preoperatively to facilitate resection or postoperatively (after debulking surgery) to avoid mutilating surgical procedures.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_20">20</a>] This approach results in a high rate of cure and the preservation of menstrual function and fertility in most patients with dysgerminomas.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_23">23</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_25">25</a>]</p></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__424"><h4>Malignant nongerminomatous ovarian GCTs</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__520">A multidisciplinary approach is essential for treatment of ovarian GCTs. Various surgical subspecialists and the pediatric oncologist must be involved in clinical decisions. The surgical approach for pediatric ovarian GCTs is often guided by the hope that reproductive function can be preserved. </p><div id="CDR0000062854__521"><h5>Standard treatment options for malignant nongerminomatous ovarian GCTs</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__522">Standard treatment options for malignant nongerminomatous ovarian GCTs include the following:</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__523"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__545">Surgery and observation (stage I)</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__549">Surgery and chemotherapy (stage I and stages II through IV)</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__552">Biopsy followed by chemotherapy and surgery (initially unresectable tumors)</a>.</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__147">The treatment of ovarian malignant GCTs that are not dysgerminomas or immature teratomas generally involves surgical resection and adjuvant chemotherapy.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_26">26</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_27">27</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__543">The role for surgery at diagnosis is age- and site-dependent and must be individualized. The use of laparoscopy in children with ovarian GCTs has not been well studied.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__524">Pediatric surgical guidelines to determine stage I disease have been published.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_28">28</a>] Adult surgical guidelines to determine stage are more extensive. (Refer to the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062935/#CDR0000062935__8">Stage Information for Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors</a> section of the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062935/">Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors Treatment</a> for more information about staging of ovarian GCTs in postpubertal females.) Strict surgical staging guidelines need to be followed to determine true stage I disease. Historically, in both pediatric and adult studies, comprehensive staging guidelines have not been followed. If strict surgical staging guidelines are not followed, surgery followed by chemotherapy, rather than surgery followed by observation, is the standard treatment.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">8</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_29">29</a>] A goal of surgical therapy for pediatric GCTs is to preserve reproductive function. If conservative surgery is the choice, a high rate of cure can be obtained with adjuvant chemotherapy, and adherence to strict surgical guidelines is not necessary.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_30">30</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__544">Platinum-based chemotherapy regimens such as PEB or JEB have been used successfully in children.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">8</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_11">11</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_12">12</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_17">17</a>] BEP is a common regimen in young women with ovarian GCTs.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_31">31</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_32">32</a>] BEP differs from PEB with the addition of weekly bleomycin. This approach results in a high rate of cure and the preservation of menstrual function and fertility in most patients with nondysgerminomas.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_27">27</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_29">29</a>] (Refer to <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK65877.4/table/CDR0000062854__156/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figCDR0000062854156" rid-ob="figobCDR0000062854156">Table 5</a> for more information about the dosing schedules for BEP, PEB, and JEB.)</p><div id="CDR0000062854__545"><h5>Stage I</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__546">When strict surgical staging guidelines are followed, surgery followed by observation may be an appropriate treatment choice.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__525">Evidence (surgery and observation for stage I disease):</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__526"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>In a COG trial, 25 girls with stage I ovarian malignant GCTs were treated with surgery and observation.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_28">28</a>]<ul id="CDR0000062854__527"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>The 4-year EFS was 52%.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Relapse was detected in 12 patients by tumor marker elevation (mean time, 2 months). Eleven patients later underwent salvage therapy with three cycles of PEB. The 4-year OS was 96%.</div></li></ul>
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</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__611">Similar results have been reported in other international pediatric trials, but the number of patients has been small.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">8</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__547">When strict surgical staging guidelines are not followed, surgery followed by chemotherapy is an appropriate treatment choice. Chemotherapy consists of four cycles of PEB.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_11">11</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_12">12</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__529">Evidence (surgery and chemotherapy for stage I disease):</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__548"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>A pediatric intergroup trial studied patients with ovarian GCTs (stages I–IV).[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_11">11</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_30">30</a>]<ul id="CDR0000062854__615"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>For stage I ovarian cancer, the EFS and OS rates were both 95.1%.</div></li></ul></div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>In a previous U.S. intergroup trial where there was incomplete adherence to surgical staging guidelines, all reported stage I patients were given adjuvant chemotherapy and survived.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">8</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_29">29</a>] Patients had excellent survival with four cycles of PEB and conservative surgery.</div></li></ol></div><div id="CDR0000062854__549"><h5>Stages II through IV</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__550">Surgery and chemotherapy with four to six cycles of standard PEB in younger girls [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_11">11</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_12">12</a>] and BEP in postpubertal girls are considered standard treatments.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_31">31</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_32">32</a>] Patients with normalization of tumor markers are imaged after four cycles of PEB, and any residual tumor is removed. If the tumor is completely resected but the specimen contains viable tumor, two additional cycles of PEB can be given.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_12">12</a>] Any persistent viable tumor that remains indicates that the treatment has failed.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__551">Alternatively, surgery and chemotherapy with four to six cycles of JEB is also a treatment option (patients were all younger than 15 years).[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">8</a>]</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__552"><h5>Initially unresectable tumor</h5><p id="CDR0000062854__553">Primary resection of ovarian GCT is usually attempted. In rare instances where primary resection of the ovary is not possible without undue risk of damage to adjacent structures, an appropriate strategy is biopsy for diagnosis followed by subsequent surgery in patients who have residual masses after undergoing chemotherapy.</p></div></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_70_sid_3"><h4>Current Clinical Trials</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_70_20">Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with
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<a href="http://www.cancer.gov/search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=43496&tt=1&format=2" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">childhood malignant ovarian germ cell tumor</a>. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_70_21">General information about clinical trials is also available from the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI website</a>.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854_rl_220"><h3>References</h3><ol><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_1">Ries LA, Smith MA, Gurney JG, et al., eds.: Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975-1995. Bethesda, Md: National Cancer Institute, SEER Program, 1999. NIH Pub.No. 99-4649. <a href="https://seer.cancer.gov/archive/publications/childhood/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Also available online.</a> Last accessed April 04, 2017.</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_2">Walsh TJ, Grady RW, Porter MP, et al.: Incidence of testicular germ cell cancers in U.S. children: SEER program experience 1973 to 2000. Urology 68 (2): 402-5; discussion 405, 2006. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16904461" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 16904461</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_3">Schlatter M, Rescorla F, Giller R, et al.: Excellent outcome in patients with stage I germ cell tumors of the testes: a study of the Children's Cancer Group/Pediatric Oncology Group. J Pediatr Surg 38 (3): 319-24; discussion 319-24, 2003. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12632342" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 12632342</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_4">Canning DA: Excellent outcome in patients with stage I germ cell tumors of the testes: a study of the Children's Cancer Group/Pediatric Oncology Group [Editorial Comment on Schlatter]. J Urol 174 (1): 310, 2005.</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_5">Rescorla FJ: Pediatric germ cell tumors. Semin Surg Oncol 16 (2): 144-58, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9988869" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9988869</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_6">Haas RJ, Schmidt P, Göbel U, et al.: Treatment of malignant testicular tumors in childhood: results of the German National Study 1982-1992. Med Pediatr Oncol 23 (5): 400-5, 1994. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7521931" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 7521931</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_7">Pinkerton CR: Malignant germ cell tumours in childhood. Eur J Cancer 33 (6): 895-901; discussion 901-2, 1997. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9291812" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9291812</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_8">Mann JR, Raafat F, Robinson K, et al.: The United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group's second germ cell tumor study: carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin are effective treatment for children with malignant extracranial germ cell tumors, with acceptable toxicity. J Clin Oncol 18 (22): 3809-18, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11078494" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11078494</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_9">Rescorla FJ, Ross JH, Billmire DF, et al.: Surveillance after initial surgery for Stage I pediatric and adolescent boys with malignant testicular germ cell tumors: Report from the Children's Oncology Group. J Pediatr Surg 50 (6): 1000-3, 2015. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25812445" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 25812445</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_10">Göbel U, Haas R, Calaminus G, et al.: Testicular germ cell tumors in boys <10 years: results of the protocol MAHO 98 in respect to surgery and watch & wait strategy. Klin Padiatr 225 (6): 296-302, 2013. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24158884" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 24158884</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_11">Rogers PC, Olson TA, Cullen JW, et al.: Treatment of children and adolescents with stage II testicular and stages I and II ovarian malignant germ cell tumors: A Pediatric Intergroup Study--Pediatric Oncology Group 9048 and Children's Cancer Group 8891. J Clin Oncol 22 (17): 3563-9, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15337806" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15337806</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_12">Cushing B, Giller R, Cullen JW, et al.: Randomized comparison of combination chemotherapy with etoposide, bleomycin, and either high-dose or standard-dose cisplatin in children and adolescents with high-risk malignant germ cell tumors: a pediatric intergroup study--Pediatric Oncology Group 9049 and Children's Cancer Group 8882. J Clin Oncol 22 (13): 2691-700, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15226336" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15226336</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_13">de Wit R, Fizazi K: Controversies in the management of clinical stage I testis cancer. J Clin Oncol 24 (35): 5482-92, 2006. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17158533" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 17158533</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_14">Carver BS, Shayegan B, Serio A, et al.: Long-term clinical outcome after postchemotherapy retroperitoneal lymph node dissection in men with residual teratoma. J Clin Oncol 25 (9): 1033-7, 2007. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17261854" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 17261854</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_15">Carver BS, Shayegan B, Eggener S, et al.: Incidence of metastatic nonseminomatous germ cell tumor outside the boundaries of a modified postchemotherapy retroperitoneal lymph node dissection. J Clin Oncol 25 (28): 4365-9, 2007. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17906201" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 17906201</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_16">Guo CC, Punar M, Contreras AL, et al.: Testicular germ cell tumors with sarcomatous components: an analysis of 33 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 33 (8): 1173-8, 2009. [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC3812063/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC3812063</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19561445" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 19561445</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_17">Baranzelli MC, Bouffet E, Quintana E, et al.: Non-seminomatous ovarian germ cell tumours in children. Eur J Cancer 36 (3): 376-83, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10708940" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10708940</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_18">Dark GG, Bower M, Newlands ES, et al.: Surveillance policy for stage I ovarian germ cell tumors. J Clin Oncol 15 (2): 620-4, 1997. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9053485" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9053485</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_19">Marina NM, Cushing B, Giller R, et al.: Complete surgical excision is effective treatment for children with immature teratomas with or without malignant elements: A Pediatric Oncology Group/Children's Cancer Group Intergroup Study. J Clin Oncol 17 (7): 2137-43, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10561269" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10561269</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_20">Gershenson DM: Chemotherapy of ovarian germ cell tumors and sex cord stromal tumors. Semin Surg Oncol 10 (4): 290-8, 1994 Jul-Aug. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8091071" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 8091071</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_21">Teinturier C, Gelez J, Flamant F, et al.: Pure dysgerminoma of the ovary in childhood: treatment results and sequelae. Med Pediatr Oncol 23 (1): 1-7, 1994. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8177140" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 8177140</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_22">Mitchell MF, Gershenson DM, Soeters RP, et al.: The long-term effects of radiation therapy on patients with ovarian dysgerminoma. Cancer 67 (4): 1084-90, 1991. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1991256" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1991256</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_23">Brewer M, Gershenson DM, Herzog CE, et al.: Outcome and reproductive function after chemotherapy for ovarian dysgerminoma. J Clin Oncol 17 (9): 2670-75, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10561340" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10561340</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_24">Williams SD, Blessing JA, Hatch KD, et al.: Chemotherapy of advanced dysgerminoma: trials of the Gynecologic Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 9 (11): 1950-5, 1991. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1719142" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1719142</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_25">Gershenson DM: Menstrual and reproductive function after treatment with combination chemotherapy for malignant ovarian germ cell tumors. J Clin Oncol 6 (2): 270-5, 1988. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2828558" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 2828558</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_26">Gershenson DM, Morris M, Cangir A, et al.: Treatment of malignant germ cell tumors of the ovary with bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin. J Clin Oncol 8 (4): 715-20, 1990. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1690272" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1690272</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_27">Mitchell PL, Al-Nasiri N, A'Hern R, et al.: Treatment of nondysgerminomatous ovarian germ cell tumors: an analysis of 69 cases. Cancer 85 (10): 2232-44, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10326703" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10326703</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_28">Billmire DF, Cullen JW, Rescorla FJ, et al.: Surveillance after initial surgery for pediatric and adolescent girls with stage I ovarian germ cell tumors: report from the Children's Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 32 (5): 465-70, 2014. [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC4876316/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC4876316</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24395845" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 24395845</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_29">Palenzuela G, Martin E, Meunier A, et al.: Comprehensive staging allows for excellent outcome in patients with localized malignant germ cell tumor of the ovary. Ann Surg 248 (5): 836-41, 2008. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18948812" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 18948812</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_30">Billmire D, Vinocur C, Rescorla F, et al.: Outcome and staging evaluation in malignant germ cell tumors of the ovary in children and adolescents: an intergroup study. J Pediatr Surg 39 (3): 424-9; discussion 424-9, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15017564" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15017564</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_31">Williams SD: Ovarian germ cell tumors: an update. Semin Oncol 25 (3): 407-13, 1998. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9633853" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9633853</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_220_32">Williams S, Blessing JA, Liao SY, et al.: Adjuvant therapy of ovarian germ cell tumors with cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin: a trial of the Gynecologic Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 12 (4): 701-6, 1994. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7512129" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 7512129</span></a>]</div></li></ol></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__75"><h2 id="_CDR0000062854__75_">Treatment of Malignant Extragonadal Extracranial GCTs in Children</h2><p id="CDR0000062854__76">Extragonadal extracranial germ cell tumors (GCTs) (i.e., sacrococcygeal, mediastinal, and retroperitoneal) are more common in children than in adults.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_1">1</a>] Children with extragonadal
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malignant GCTs, particularly those with advanced-stage disease, have the
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highest risk of treatment failure for any GCT presentation.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_2">2</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_3">3</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__554">In a study of prognostic factors in pediatric extragonadal malignant GCTs, age older than 12 years was the most important prognostic factor. In a multivariate analysis, children aged 12 years or older with thoracic tumors had six times the risk of death compared with children younger than 12 years with primary nonthoracic tumors.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_4">4</a>] </p><div id="CDR0000062854__555"><h3>Standard Treatment Options for Malignant Extragonadal Extracranial GCTs </h3><p id="CDR0000062854__556">Standard treatment options for malignant extragonadal extracranial GCTs include the following:</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__585"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Surgery and chemotherapy.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Biopsy followed by chemotherapy and possibly surgery.</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__558">Outcome has improved remarkably since the advent of platinum-based
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chemotherapy and the use of a multidisciplinary treatment approach.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_2">2</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_5">5</a>] Complete resection before chemotherapy may be possible in
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some patients without major morbidity. For patients with
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locally advanced sacrococcygeal tumors, mediastinal tumors, or large pelvic tumors, tumor biopsy followed by preoperative chemotherapy can facilitate subsequent complete tumor resection and improve ultimate patient outcome.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_5">5</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_8">8</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__559">The role for surgery at diagnosis for extragonadal tumors is age- and site-dependent and must be individualized. Depending on the clinical setting, the appropriate surgical approach may be primary resection, biopsy before chemotherapy, or no surgery (e.g., mediastinal primary tumor in a patient with a compromised airway and elevated tumor markers). An appropriate strategy may be biopsy at diagnosis followed by chemotherapy and subsequent surgery in selected patients who have residual masses after chemotherapy.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__560"><h4>Stages I and II</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__561">Surgery and chemotherapy with four to six cycles of standard cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin (PEB) is one treatment alternative. Patients treated with this regimen have an overall survival (OS) outcome greater than 90%, suggesting that a reduction in therapy could be considered.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_2">2</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_9">9</a>] An alternative treatment option is surgery and chemotherapy with six cycles of carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin (JEB).[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_5">5</a>]</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__562"><h4>Stages III and IV</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__563">A treatment option for stage III and stage IV disease is surgery and chemotherapy with four to six cycles of standard PEB. Patients have an OS outcome approaching 80% with this regimen.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_2">2</a>] Another treatment option is surgery and chemotherapy with six cycles of JEB, which has an OS similar to that of the PEB regimen.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_5">5</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__564">A Children's Oncology Group trial investigated the addition of cyclophosphamide to standard-dose PEB. The addition of cyclophosphamide was feasible and well tolerated at all dose levels, but there was no evidence that adding cyclophosphamide improves efficacy.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_10">10</a>]</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__565"><h3>Malignant Extragonadal Extracranial GCTs (Sacrococcygeal Sites)</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__148">Sacrococcygeal GCTs are common extragonadal tumors that occur in very young children, predominantly young females.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_11">11</a>] The tumors are usually diagnosed at birth, when large external lesions predominate (usually mature or immature teratomas), or later in the first years of life, when presacral lesions with higher malignancy rates predominate.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_11">11</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__569">Malignant sacrococcygeal tumors are usually very advanced at diagnosis; two-thirds of patients have locoregional disease, and metastases are present in 50% of patients.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_7">7</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_12">12</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_13">13</a>] Because of their advanced stage at presentation, the management of sacrococcygeal tumors requires a multimodal approach with platinum-based chemotherapy followed by delayed tumor resection. </p><p id="CDR0000062854__570">Platinum-based therapies, with either cisplatin or carboplatin, are the cornerstone of treatment. The PEB regimen or the JEB regimen produces event-free survival (EFS) rates of 75% to 85% and OS rates of 80% to 90%.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_7">7</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_8">8</a>] Surgery may be facilitated by preoperative chemotherapy. In any patient with a sacrococcygeal GCT, resection of the coccyx is mandatory.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_7">7</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_8">8</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__571"> Completeness of surgical resection is an important prognostic factor, as shown in the following circumstances:[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_7">7</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_8">8</a>]</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__572"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Resected tumors with negative microscopic margins—EFS rates higher than 90%.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Resected tumors with microscopic margins—EFS rates of 75% to 85%.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Resected tumors with macroscopic residual disease—EFS rates lower than 40%. </div></li></ul></div><div id="CDR0000062854__566"><h3>Malignant Extragonadal Extracranial GCTs (Mediastinal)</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__77">Mediastinal GCTs account for 15% to 20% of malignant extragonadal
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extracranial GCTs in children.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_5">5</a>] The histology of mediastinal
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GCT is dependent on age, with teratomas predominating among
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infants and yolk sac tumor histology predominating among children aged 1
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to 4 years.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_6">6</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__573">Children with mediastinal teratomas are treated with tumor
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resection, which is curative in almost all patients.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_6">6</a>] Children with
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malignant, nonmetastatic mediastinal GCTs who receive
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cisplatin-based chemotherapy have 5-year EFS and OS rates of 90%; however, metastatic mediastinal tumors have an EFS closer to 70%.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_5">5</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_6">6</a>]; [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_14">14</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335144/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiA</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__574">Most mediastinal GCTs in adolescents and young adults occur in males, and 22% to 50% have cytogenetic changes consistent with Klinefelter syndrome.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_15">15</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_16">16</a>] The age of presentation is younger in patients with Klinefelter syndrome.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_15">15</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_16">16</a>] As with sacrococcygeal tumors, primary chemotherapy is usually necessary to facilitate surgical resection of mediastinal GCTs, and the completeness of resection is a very important prognostic indicator.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_6">6</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_17">17</a>] Survival rates for the older adolescent and young adult
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population with mediastinal tumors are generally lower than 60%.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_4">4</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_18">18</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_20">20</a>]; [<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_21">21</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335144/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiA</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__575">Patients with a malignant mediastinal primary tumor and extracranial metastases are at the highest risk of developing brain metastases and are monitored closely for signs and symptoms of central nervous system involvement.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_22">22</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335145/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiB</a>] (Refer to the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062939/">Extragonadal Germ Cell
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Tumors Treatment</a> for more information about the treatment of adult patients.)
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</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__567"><h3>Malignant Extragonadal Extracranial GCTs (Retroperitoneum)</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__149">Malignant GCTs located in the retroperitoneum or abdomen usually present in children younger than 5 years; most tumors are advanced stage and locally unresectable at diagnosis.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_23">23</a>] A limited biopsy followed by platinum-based chemotherapy to shrink tumor bulk can lead to complete tumor resection in most patients. Despite the advanced-stage disease in most patients, the 6-year EFS using PEB was 83% in the Pediatric Oncology Group/Children's Cancer Group intergroup study.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_23">23</a>]</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__568"><h3>Malignant Extragonadal Extracranial GCTs (Head and Neck Sites)</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__326">Although rare, benign and malignant GCTs can occur in the head and neck region, especially in infants. The airway is often threatened. Surgery for nonmalignant tumors and surgery plus chemotherapy for malignant tumors can be curative.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_75_24">24</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335155/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiiDii</a>]</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_75_sid_6"><h3>Current Clinical Trials</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_75_20">Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with
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<a href="http://www.cancer.gov/search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=43497&tt=1&format=2" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">childhood extragonadal germ cell tumor</a>. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_75_21">General information about clinical trials is also available from the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI website</a>.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854_rl_75"><h3>References</h3><ol><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_1">Pantoja E, Llobet R, Gonzalez-Flores B: Retroperitoneal teratoma: historical review. J Urol 115 (5): 520-3, 1976. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1271542" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 1271542</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_2">Cushing B, Giller R, Cullen JW, et al.: Randomized comparison of combination chemotherapy with etoposide, bleomycin, and either high-dose or standard-dose cisplatin in children and adolescents with high-risk malignant germ cell tumors: a pediatric intergroup study--Pediatric Oncology Group 9049 and Children's Cancer Group 8882. J Clin Oncol 22 (13): 2691-700, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15226336" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15226336</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_3">Baranzelli MC, Kramar A, Bouffet E, et al.: Prognostic factors in children with localized malignant nonseminomatous germ cell tumors. J Clin Oncol 17 (4): 1212, 1999. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10561181" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10561181</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_4">Marina N, London WB, Frazier AL, et al.: Prognostic factors in children with extragonadal malignant germ cell tumors: a pediatric intergroup study. J Clin Oncol 24 (16): 2544-8, 2006. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16735707" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 16735707</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_5">Mann JR, Raafat F, Robinson K, et al.: The United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group's second germ cell tumor study: carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin are effective treatment for children with malignant extracranial germ cell tumors, with acceptable toxicity. J Clin Oncol 18 (22): 3809-18, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11078494" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11078494</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_6">Schneider DT, Calaminus G, Reinhard H, et al.: Primary mediastinal germ cell tumors in children and adolescents: results of the German cooperative protocols MAKEI 83/86, 89, and 96. J Clin Oncol 18 (4): 832-9, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10673525" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10673525</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_7">Göbel U, Schneider DT, Calaminus G, et al.: Multimodal treatment of malignant sacrococcygeal germ cell tumors: a prospective analysis of 66 patients of the German cooperative protocols MAKEI 83/86 and 89. J Clin Oncol 19 (7): 1943-50, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11283126" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11283126</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_8">Rescorla F, Billmire D, Stolar C, et al.: The effect of cisplatin dose and surgical resection in children with malignant germ cell tumors at the sacrococcygeal region: a pediatric intergroup trial (POG 9049/CCG 8882). J Pediatr Surg 36 (1): 12-7, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11150431" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11150431</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_9">Rogers PC, Olson TA, Cullen JW, et al.: Treatment of children and adolescents with stage II testicular and stages I and II ovarian malignant germ cell tumors: A Pediatric Intergroup Study--Pediatric Oncology Group 9048 and Children's Cancer Group 8891. J Clin Oncol 22 (17): 3563-9, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15337806" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15337806</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_10">Malogolowkin MH, Krailo M, Marina N, et al.: Pilot study of cisplatin, etoposide, bleomycin, and escalating dose cyclophosphamide therapy for children with high risk germ cell tumors: a report of the children's oncology group (COG). Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (10): 1602-5, 2013. [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC4303038/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC4303038</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23703725" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 23703725</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_11">Altman RP, Randolph JG, Lilly JR: Sacrococcygeal teratoma: American Academy of Pediatrics Surgical Section Survey-1973. J Pediatr Surg 9 (3): 389-98, 1974. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4843993" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 4843993</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_12">Rescorla FJ, Sawin RS, Coran AG, et al.: Long-term outcome for infants and children with sacrococcygeal teratoma: a report from the Childrens Cancer Group. J Pediatr Surg 33 (2): 171-6, 1998. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9498381" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9498381</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_13">Calaminus G, Schneider DT, Bökkerink JP, et al.: Prognostic value of tumor size, metastases, extension into bone, and increased tumor marker in children with malignant sacrococcygeal germ cell tumors: a prospective evaluation of 71 patients treated in the German cooperative protocols Maligne Keimzelltumoren (MAKEI) 83/86 and MAKEI 89. J Clin Oncol 21 (5): 781-6, 2003. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12610174" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 12610174</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_14">De Pasquale MD, Crocoli A, Conte M, et al.: Mediastinal Germ Cell Tumors in Pediatric Patients: A Report From the Italian Association of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology. Pediatr Blood Cancer 63 (5): 808-12, 2016. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26766550" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 26766550</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_15">Nichols CR, Heerema NA, Palmer C, et al.: Klinefelter's syndrome associated with mediastinal germ cell neoplasms. J Clin Oncol 5 (8): 1290-4, 1987. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3040921" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 3040921</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_16">Schneider DT, Schuster AE, Fritsch MK, et al.: Genetic analysis of mediastinal nonseminomatous germ cell tumors in children and adolescents. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 34 (1): 115-25, 2002. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11921289" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11921289</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_17">Billmire D, Vinocur C, Rescorla F, et al.: Malignant mediastinal germ cell tumors: an intergroup study. J Pediatr Surg 36 (1): 18-24, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11150432" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11150432</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_18">Vuky J, Bains M, Bacik J, et al.: Role of postchemotherapy adjunctive surgery in the management of patients with nonseminoma arising from the mediastinum. J Clin Oncol 19 (3): 682-8, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11157018" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11157018</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_19">Ganjoo KN, Rieger KM, Kesler KA, et al.: Results of modern therapy for patients with mediastinal nonseminomatous germ cell tumors. Cancer 88 (5): 1051-6, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10699894" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10699894</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_20">Bokemeyer C, Nichols CR, Droz JP, et al.: Extragonadal germ cell tumors of the mediastinum and retroperitoneum: results from an international analysis. J Clin Oncol 20 (7): 1864-73, 2002. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919246" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11919246</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_21">Kang CH, Kim YT, Jheon SH, et al.: Surgical treatment of malignant mediastinal nonseminomatous germ cell tumor. Ann Thorac Surg 85 (2): 379-84, 2008. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18222229" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 18222229</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_22">Göbel U, von Kries R, Teske C, et al.: Brain metastases during follow-up of children and adolescents with extracranial malignant germ cell tumors: risk adapted management decision tree analysis based on data of the MAHO/MAKEI-registry. Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (2): 217-23, 2013. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22693072" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 22693072</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_23">Billmire D, Vinocur C, Rescorla F, et al.: Malignant retroperitoneal and abdominal germ cell tumors: an intergroup study. J Pediatr Surg 38 (3): 315-8; discussion 315-8, 2003. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12632341" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 12632341</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_75_24">Bernbeck B, Schneider DT, Bernbeck B, et al.: Germ cell tumors of the head and neck: report from the MAKEI Study Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (2): 223-6, 2009. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18937314" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 18937314</span></a>]</div></li></ol></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__79"><h2 id="_CDR0000062854__79_">Treatment of Recurrent Malignant GCTs in Children</h2><p id="CDR0000062854__150">Only a small number of children and adolescents with extracranial germ cell tumors (GCTs) have a recurrence.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_1">1</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_2">2</a>] However, the approach to the treatment of recurrent disease and its success depend on the initial treatment regimen and on the response of the tumor to treatment. </p><p id="CDR0000062854__425">There are no standard treatment options for recurrent pediatric GCTs. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI website</a>.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__576"><h3>Treatment Options for Recurrent Malignant GCTs in Children</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__426">Treatment options for recurrent childhood malignant GCTs include the following:</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__586"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Surgery only.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__428">Surgery followed by chemotherapy</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__429">Chemotherapy followed by surgery and possibly radiation therapy</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__613">High-dose (HD) chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell rescue</a>.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div><a href="#CDR0000062854__580">Radiation therapy followed by surgery (for brain metastases)</a>.</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__153">Despite overall cure rates higher than 80%, children with extracranial GCTs who have disease recurrence after surgery and three-agent, platinum-based combination chemotherapy (cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin [PEB] or carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin [JEB]) have an unfavorable prognosis. Reports regarding the treatment and outcome of these children are based on small studies.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_3">3</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__264">Reports of salvage treatment strategies used in adult recurrent GCTs include larger numbers of patients, but the differences between children and adults regarding the location of the primary GCT site, pattern of relapse, and the biology of childhood GCTs may limit the applicability of adult salvage approaches to children. In adults with recurrent GCTs, several chemotherapy combinations have achieved relatively good disease-free status.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_4">4</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_9">9</a>] A combination of paclitaxel and gemcitabine has demonstrated activity in adults with testicular GCTs who relapsed after HD chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT).[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_10">10</a>]</p><div id="CDR0000062854__428"><h4>Surgery followed by chemotherapy</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__151">If a tumor recurs, boys with stage I testicular disease originally treated with surgical resection and observation can usually undergo salvage therapy with further surgical excision and standard PEB or JEB chemotherapy.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_11">11</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_12">12</a>] </p><p id="CDR0000062854__579">For stage I ovarian GCT patients originally treated with surgery and observation, several European studies have reported encouraging salvage rates with further surgical excision and chemotherapy.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_13">13</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_14">14</a>]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__612">In a Children’s Oncology Group trial (<a href="http://cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/view?version=healthprofessional&cdrid=542424" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">AGCT0521 [NCT00467051]</a>), patients who relapsed after PEB therapy received two cycles of paclitaxel, ifosfamide, and carboplatin. Study results are pending.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__429"><h4>Chemotherapy followed by surgery and possibly radiation therapy</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__152">Most children with benign sacrococcygeal tumors experience recurrence with a malignant component at the primary tumor site. For these children, complete surgical resection of the recurrent tumor and coccyx (if not done originally) is the basis of salvage treatment; preoperative chemotherapy with PEB may assist the surgical resection. In patients who had a malignant sacrococcygeal tumor that recurred after PEB treatment, surgery and additional chemotherapy may be warranted; when a complete salvage resection is not achieved, postoperative local radiation therapy may be an option.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_3">3</a>]</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__613"><h4>HD chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell rescue</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__616">The role of HD chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell rescue for recurrent pediatric GCTs is not established, despite anecdotal reports. (Refer to the <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000700000/#CDR0000700000__163">Autologous Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation</a> section of the PDQ summary on <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000700000/">Childhood Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation</a> for more information about transplantation.) In one European series, 10 of 23 children with relapsed extragonadal GCTs achieved long-term disease-free survival (median follow-up, 66 months) after receiving HD chemotherapy with stem cell support.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_15">15</a>] Further study in children and adolescents is needed.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__614">HD chemotherapy with autologous stem cell rescue has been explored as a treatment for adults with recurrent testicular GCTs. HD chemotherapy plus hematopoietic stem cell rescue has been reported to cure adult patients with relapsed testicular GCTs, even as third-line therapy and in cisplatin-refractory patients.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_16">16</a>] A small study also demonstrated efficacy in adolescents and women with ovarian GCTs.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_17">17</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335150/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiiA</a>] While several other studies support this approach,[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_10">10</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_18">18</a>-<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_21">21</a>] others do not.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_22">22</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_23">23</a>] Salvage attempts using HD-chemotherapy regimens may be of little benefit if the patient is not clinically disease free at the time of HSCT.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_16">16</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_24">24</a>]</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__580"><h4>Radiation therapy followed by surgery (for brain metastases)</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__581"> Patients with nongerminomatous brain metastases may respond to radiation therapy. In the German Maligne Keimzelltümoren (MAKEI) studies, radiation therapy and surgery for patients with brain metastases provided palliation and occasional long-term survival.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_25">25</a>,<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_26">26</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335150/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiiA</a>]</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__431"><h3>Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation for Recurrent Malignant GCTs in Children and Adolescents</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__582">Treatment options under clinical evaluation for recurrent malignant GCTs in children and adolescents include the following:</p><ol id="CDR0000062854__590"><li class="half_rhythm"><div><b><a href="http://cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/view?version=healthprofessional&cdrid=769771" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Alliance A031102 (NCT02375204)</a></b> (Standard-Dose Combination Chemotherapy or High-Dose Combination Chemotherapy and Stem Cell Transplant in Treating Patients with Relapsed or Refractory Germ Cell Tumors)<b>:</b> The purpose of this study is to compare a conventional chemotherapy regimen with a high-dose regimen in patients with relapsed GCTs to investigate whether the high-dose chemotherapy is more effective. These treatments are being assessed in male patients (aged ≥ 14 years) with GCTs that recurred or continued to grow after their first regimen of chemotherapy.
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The conventional chemotherapy regimen includes four cycles of the drugs paclitaxel, ifosfamide, and cisplatin. The high-dose treatment includes two cycles of paclitaxel and ifosfamide, followed by three cycles of much higher doses of the drugs carboplatin and etoposide and a stem cell transplant. Patients' stem cells are removed before beginning the carboplatin/etoposide treatment and then returned to them after each cycle of carboplatin/etoposide.
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Patients in this study will be randomly assigned to receive either conventional chemotherapy or the high-dose chemotherapy regimen, but not both.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Hyperthermia. A single-institution study of 44 young people (aged 7 months to 21 years) with refractory or recurrent extracranial GCTs, using cisplatin/etoposide/ifosfamide and regional deep hyperthermia with or without surgery plus radiation therapy for residual tumor, showed a response rate of 86% in 35 patients for whom sufficient data were available. The 5-year event-free survival was 62%, and the 5-year overall survival was 72%.[<a class="bk_pop" href="#CDR0000062854_rl_79_27">27</a>][<a href="/books/n/pdqcis/glossary_loe/def-item/glossary_loe_CDR0000335147/" class="def">Level of evidence: 3iiDi</a>] However, regional hyperthermia facilities are limited and not readily available for children in the United States. Further study in children and adolescents is needed.</div></li></ol><p id="CDR0000062854__640">Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI website</a>.</p><div id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_431_sid_6"><h4>Current Clinical Trials</h4><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_431_20">Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with
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<a href="http://www.cancer.gov/search/ClinicalTrialsLink.aspx?Diagnosis=43498&tt=1&format=2" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">recurrent childhood malignant germ cell tumor</a>. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__TrialSearch_431_21">General information about clinical trials is also available from the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/clinical-trials" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NCI website</a>.</p></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854_rl_79"><h3>References</h3><ol><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_1">Mann JR, Raafat F, Robinson K, et al.: The United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group's second germ cell tumor study: carboplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin are effective treatment for children with malignant extracranial germ cell tumors, with acceptable toxicity. J Clin Oncol 18 (22): 3809-18, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11078494" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11078494</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_2">Cushing B, Giller R, Cullen JW, et al.: Randomized comparison of combination chemotherapy with etoposide, bleomycin, and either high-dose or standard-dose cisplatin in children and adolescents with high-risk malignant germ cell tumors: a pediatric intergroup study--Pediatric Oncology Group 9049 and Children's Cancer Group 8882. J Clin Oncol 22 (13): 2691-700, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15226336" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15226336</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_3">Schneider DT, Wessalowski R, Calaminus G, et al.: Treatment of recurrent malignant sacrococcygeal germ cell tumors: analysis of 22 patients registered in the German protocols MAKEI 83/86, 89, and 96. J Clin Oncol 19 (7): 1951-60, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11283127" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11283127</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_4">Loehrer PJ Sr, Gonin R, Nichols CR, et al.: Vinblastine plus ifosfamide plus cisplatin as initial salvage therapy in recurrent germ cell tumor. J Clin Oncol 16 (7): 2500-4, 1998. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9667270" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9667270</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_5">Motzer RJ, Sheinfeld J, Mazumdar M, et al.: Paclitaxel, ifosfamide, and cisplatin second-line therapy for patients with relapsed testicular germ cell cancer. J Clin Oncol 18 (12): 2413-8, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10856101" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10856101</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_6">Hartmann JT, Einhorn L, Nichols CR, et al.: Second-line chemotherapy in patients with relapsed extragonadal nonseminomatous germ cell tumors: results of an international multicenter analysis. J Clin Oncol 19 (6): 1641-8, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11250992" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11250992</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_7">Mandanas RA, Saez RA, Epstein RB, et al.: Long-term results of autologous marrow transplantation for relapsed or refractory male or female germ cell tumors. Bone Marrow Transplant 21 (6): 569-76, 1998. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9543060" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9543060</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_8">Kondagunta GV, Bacik J, Sheinfeld J, et al.: Paclitaxel plus Ifosfamide followed by high-dose carboplatin plus etoposide in previously treated germ cell tumors. J Clin Oncol 25 (1): 85-90, 2007. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17194908" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 17194908</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_9">Schmoll HJ, Kollmannsberger C, Metzner B, et al.: Long-term results of first-line sequential high-dose etoposide, ifosfamide, and cisplatin chemotherapy plus autologous stem cell support for patients with advanced metastatic germ cell cancer: an extended phase I/II study of the German Testicular Cancer Study Group. J Clin Oncol 21 (22): 4083-91, 2003. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14568987" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 14568987</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_10">Einhorn LH, Brames MJ, Juliar B, et al.: Phase II study of paclitaxel plus gemcitabine salvage chemotherapy for germ cell tumors after progression following high-dose chemotherapy with tandem transplant. J Clin Oncol 25 (5): 513-6, 2007. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17290059" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 17290059</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_11">Schlatter M, Rescorla F, Giller R, et al.: Excellent outcome in patients with stage I germ cell tumors of the testes: a study of the Children's Cancer Group/Pediatric Oncology Group. J Pediatr Surg 38 (3): 319-24; discussion 319-24, 2003. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12632342" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 12632342</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_12">Rogers PC, Olson TA, Cullen JW, et al.: Treatment of children and adolescents with stage II testicular and stages I and II ovarian malignant germ cell tumors: A Pediatric Intergroup Study--Pediatric Oncology Group 9048 and Children's Cancer Group 8891. J Clin Oncol 22 (17): 3563-9, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15337806" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15337806</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_13">Baranzelli MC, Bouffet E, Quintana E, et al.: Non-seminomatous ovarian germ cell tumours in children. Eur J Cancer 36 (3): 376-83, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10708940" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10708940</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_14">Dark GG, Bower M, Newlands ES, et al.: Surveillance policy for stage I ovarian germ cell tumors. J Clin Oncol 15 (2): 620-4, 1997. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9053485" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 9053485</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_15">De Giorgi U, Rosti G, Slavin S, et al.: Salvage high-dose chemotherapy for children with extragonadal germ-cell tumours. Br J Cancer 93 (4): 412-7, 2005. [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC2361583/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC2361583</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16106248" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 16106248</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_16">Einhorn LH, Williams SD, Chamness A, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy and stem-cell rescue for metastatic germ-cell tumors. N Engl J Med 357 (4): 340-8, 2007. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17652649" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 17652649</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_17">Meisel JL, Woo KM, Sudarsan N, et al.: Development of a risk stratification system to guide treatment for female germ cell tumors. Gynecol Oncol 138 (3): 566-72, 2015. [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC5012648/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC5012648</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26115974" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 26115974</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_18">Bhatia S, Abonour R, Porcu P, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy as initial salvage chemotherapy in patients with relapsed testicular cancer. J Clin Oncol 18 (19): 3346-51, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11013274" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11013274</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_19">Motzer RJ, Mazumdar M, Sheinfeld J, et al.: Sequential dose-intensive paclitaxel, ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide salvage therapy for germ cell tumor patients. J Clin Oncol 18 (6): 1173-80, 2000. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10715285" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 10715285</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_20">Rick O, Bokemeyer C, Beyer J, et al.: Salvage treatment with paclitaxel, ifosfamide, and cisplatin plus high-dose carboplatin, etoposide, and thiotepa followed by autologous stem-cell rescue in patients with relapsed or refractory germ cell cancer. J Clin Oncol 19 (1): 81-8, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11134198" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11134198</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_21">Feldman DR, Sheinfeld J, Bajorin DF, et al.: TI-CE high-dose chemotherapy for patients with previously treated germ cell tumors: results and prognostic factor analysis. J Clin Oncol 28 (10): 1706-13, 2010. [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC3651604/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC3651604</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20194867" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 20194867</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_22">Beyer J, Rick O, Siegert W, et al.: Salvage chemotherapy in relapsed germ cell tumors. World J Urol 19 (2): 90-3, 2001. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11374323" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 11374323</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_23">Beyer J, Kramar A, Mandanas R, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy as salvage treatment in germ cell tumors: a multivariate analysis of prognostic variables. J Clin Oncol 14 (10): 2638-45, 1996. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8874322" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 8874322</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_24">Rick O, Bokemeyer C, Weinknecht S, et al.: Residual tumor resection after high-dose chemotherapy in patients with relapsed or refractory germ cell cancer. J Clin Oncol 22 (18): 3713-9, 2004. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15365067" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 15365067</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_25">Göbel U, von Kries R, Teske C, et al.: Brain metastases during follow-up of children and adolescents with extracranial malignant germ cell tumors: risk adapted management decision tree analysis based on data of the MAHO/MAKEI-registry. Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (2): 217-23, 2013. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22693072" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 22693072</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_26">Göbel U, Schneider DT, Teske C, et al.: Brain metastases in children and adolescents with extracranial germ cell tumor - data of the MAHO/MAKEI-registry. Klin Padiatr 222 (3): 140-4, 2010. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20514616" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 20514616</span></a>]</div></li><li><div class="bk_ref" id="CDR0000062854_rl_79_27">Wessalowski R, Schneider DT, Mils O, et al.: Regional deep hyperthermia for salvage treatment of children and adolescents with refractory or recurrent non-testicular malignant germ-cell tumours: an open-label, non-randomised, single-institution, phase 2 study. Lancet Oncol 14 (9): 843-52, 2013. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23823158" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 23823158</span></a>]</div></li></ol></div></div><div id="CDR0000062854__112"><h2 id="_CDR0000062854__112_">Changes to This Summary (08/11/2016)</h2><p id="CDR0000062854__116">The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as
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new information becomes available. This section describes the latest
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changes made to this summary as of the date above.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__662"><b><a href="#CDR0000062854__213">Treatment of Mature and Immature Teratomas in Children</a></b></p><p id="CDR0000062854__663">Revised <a href="#CDR0000062854__481">text</a> to remove chemotherapy as a standard treatment option for stages II through IV immature teratomas in a nonsacrococcygeal site.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__664"><b><a href="#CDR0000062854__220">Treatment of Malignant Gonadal Germ Cell Tumors (GCTs) in Children</a></b></p><p id="CDR0000062854__665">Revised <a href="/books/NBK65877.4/#CDR0000062854__534">text</a> about the results of a Children’s Oncology Group study of 80 boys younger than 15 years with stage I disease that included 15 boys aged 11 to 15 years who were treated with surgery and observation.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__666">Revised <a href="/books/NBK65877.4/#CDR0000062854__534">text</a> about the results of a German study (MAHO 98) of 128 boys younger than 10 years with testis GCTs, mostly stage I, that evaluated surgery followed by observation.</p><p id="CDR0000062854__disclaimerHP_3">This summary is written and maintained by the <a href="http://www.cancer.gov/publications/pdq/editorial-boards/pediatric-treatment" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board</a>, which is
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editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of
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the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More
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information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in
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maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the <a href="#CDR0000062854__AboutThis_1">About This PDQ Summary</a> and <a href="http://www.cancer.gov/publications/pdq" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">PDQ® - NCI's Comprehensive Cancer Database</a> pages.
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</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_1"><h2 id="_CDR0000062854__AboutThis_1_">About This PDQ Summary</h2><div id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_2"><h3>Purpose of This Summary</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_3">This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of childhood extracranial germ cell tumors. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_4"><h3>Reviewers and Updates</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_5">This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the <a href="http://www.cancer.gov/publications/pdq/editorial-boards/pediatric-treatment" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board</a>, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).</p><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_22"> Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:</p><ul id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_6"><li class="half_rhythm"><div>be discussed at a meeting,</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>be cited with text, or</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>replace or update an existing article that is already cited.</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_7">Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.</p><p>The lead reviewers for Childhood Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors Treatment are:</p><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Thomas A. Olson, MD (AFLAC Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta - Egleston Campus)</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>R Beverly Raney, MD (Consultant)</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Stephen J. Shochat, MD (St. Jude Children's Research Hospital)</div></li></ul><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_9">Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the NCI website's <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/contact/email-us" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Email Us</a>. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_10"><h3>Levels of Evidence</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_11">Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board uses a <a href="/books/n/pdqcis/CDR0000062796/">formal evidence ranking system</a> in developing its level-of-evidence designations.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_12"><h3>Permission to Use This Summary</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_13">PDQ is a registered trademark. Although the content of PDQ documents can be used freely as text, it cannot be identified as an NCI PDQ cancer information summary unless it is presented in its entirety and is regularly updated. However, an author would be permitted to write a sentence such as “NCI’s PDQ cancer information summary about breast cancer prevention states the risks succinctly: [include excerpt from the summary].”</p><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_14">The preferred citation for this PDQ summary is:</p><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_15">PDQ® Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Childhood Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/types/extracranial-germ-cell/hp/germ-cell-treatment-pdq" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">https://www.cancer.gov/types/extracranial-germ-cell/hp/germ-cell-treatment-pdq</a>. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389316]</p><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_16">Images in this summary are used with permission of the author(s), artist, and/or publisher for use within the PDQ summaries only. Permission to use images outside the context of PDQ information must be obtained from the owner(s) and cannot be granted by the National Cancer Institute. Information about using the illustrations in this summary, along with many other cancer-related images, is available in <a href="https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Visuals Online</a>, a collection of over 2,000 scientific images.
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</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_17"><h3>Disclaimer</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_18">Based on the strength of the available evidence, treatment options may be described as either “standard” or “under clinical evaluation.” These classifications should not be used as a basis for insurance reimbursement determinations. More information on insurance coverage is available on Cancer.gov on the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/managing-care" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Managing Cancer Care</a> page.</p></div><div id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_20"><h3>Contact Us</h3><p id="CDR0000062854__AboutThis_21">More information about contacting us or receiving help with the Cancer.gov website can be found on our <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/contact" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Contact Us for Help</a> page. Questions can also be submitted to Cancer.gov through the website’s <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/contact/email-us" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Email Us</a>.</p></div></div></div></div>
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Childhood Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. 2016 Aug 11. In: PDQ Cancer Information Summaries [Internet]. 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href="/books/NBK65877.12/">NBK65877.12</a></span> November 20, 2018</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.11/">NBK65877.11</a></span> November 13, 2018</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.10/">NBK65877.10</a></span> April 5, 2018</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.9/">NBK65877.9</a></span> October 3, 2017</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.8/">NBK65877.8</a></span> September 19, 2017</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.7/">NBK65877.7</a></span> August 31, 2017</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.6/">NBK65877.6</a></span> June 21, 2017</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.5/">NBK65877.5</a></span> May 9, 2017</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm">NBK65877.4</span> August 11, 2016 (Displayed Version)</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.3/">NBK65877.3</a></span> April 1, 2016</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.2/">NBK65877.2</a></span> December 10, 2015</li><li><span class="bk_col_itm"><a href="/books/NBK65877.1/">NBK65877.1</a></span> June 17, 2015</li></ul></div></div><div class="portlet"><div class="portlet_head"><div class="portlet_title"><h3><span>In this Page</span></h3></div><a name="Shutter" sid="1" href="#" class="portlet_shutter" title="Show/hide content" remembercollapsed="true" pgsec_name="page-toc" id="Shutter"></a></div><div class="portlet_content"><ul xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="simple-list"><li><a href="#CDR0000062854__1" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">General Information About Childhood Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors (GCTs)</a></li><li><a href="#CDR0000062854__18" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Stage Information for Childhood Extracranial GCTs</a></li><li><a href="#CDR0000062854__44" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Treatment Option Overview for Childhood Extracranial GCTs</a></li><li><a href="#CDR0000062854__213" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Treatment of Mature and Immature Teratomas in Children</a></li><li><a href="#CDR0000062854__220" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage"> Treatment of Malignant Gonadal GCTs in Children</a></li><li><a href="#CDR0000062854__75" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Treatment of Malignant Extragonadal Extracranial GCTs in Children</a></li><li><a href="#CDR0000062854__79" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Treatment of Recurrent Malignant GCTs in Children</a></li><li><a href="#CDR0000062854__112" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">Changes to This Summary (08/11/2016)</a></li><li><a href="#CDR0000062854__AboutThis_1" ref="log$=inpage&link_id=inpage">About This PDQ Summary</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="portlet"><div class="portlet_head"><div class="portlet_title"><h3><span>Related publications</span></h3></div><a name="Shutter" sid="1" href="#" class="portlet_shutter" title="Show/hide content" remembercollapsed="true" 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Summari...]</span><div class="brieflinkpop offscreen_noflow"><span xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="invert">Review</span> Childhood Central Nervous System Germ Cell Tumors Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version.<div class="brieflinkpopdesc"><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="author">PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. </em><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="cit">PDQ Cancer Information Summaries. 2002</em></div></div></li><li class="brieflinkpopper two_line"><a class="brieflinkpopperctrl" href="/pubmed/26389346" ref="ordinalpos=1&linkpos=2&log$=relatedreviews&logdbfrom=pubmed"><span xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="invert">Review</span> Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumors Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version.</a><span class="source">[PDQ Cancer Information Summari...]</span><div class="brieflinkpop offscreen_noflow"><span xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="invert">Review</span> Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumors Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version.<div class="brieflinkpopdesc"><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="author">PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board. </em><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="cit">PDQ Cancer Information Summaries. 2002</em></div></div></li><li class="brieflinkpopper two_line"><a class="brieflinkpopperctrl" href="/pubmed/31846265" ref="ordinalpos=1&linkpos=3&log$=relatedreviews&logdbfrom=pubmed"><span xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="invert">Review</span> Childhood Testicular Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version.</a><span class="source">[PDQ Cancer Information Summari...]</span><div class="brieflinkpop offscreen_noflow"><span xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="invert">Review</span> Childhood Testicular Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version.<div class="brieflinkpopdesc"><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="author">PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. </em><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="cit">PDQ Cancer Information Summaries. 2002</em></div></div></li><li class="brieflinkpopper two_line"><a class="brieflinkpopperctrl" href="/pubmed/26389373" ref="ordinalpos=1&linkpos=4&log$=relatedreviews&logdbfrom=pubmed"><span xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="invert">Review</span> Childhood Ependymoma Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version.</a><span class="source">[PDQ Cancer Information Summari...]</span><div class="brieflinkpop offscreen_noflow"><span xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="invert">Review</span> Childhood Ependymoma Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version.<div class="brieflinkpopdesc"><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="author">PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. </em><em xmlns:np="http://ncbi.gov/portal/XSLT/namespace" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" class="cit">PDQ Cancer Information Summaries. 2002</em></div></div></li><li class="brieflinkpopper 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