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<script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jatsreader/ptpmc_3.22/js/jr.boots.min.js"> </script><title>Adjusting Ventilator Settings Based on ABG Results - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf</title>
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<meta name="citation_date" content="2024/08/11">
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<meta name="citation_author" content="Wael Hassan">
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<meta name="citation_author" content="Mohamed Elkhatieb">
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<meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Wael Hassan">
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<meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Mohamed Elkhatieb">
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<meta name="description" content="Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis is crucial for treating patients who are critically ill and on mechanical ventilation. This test provides vital information about acid-base balance, oxygenation, and ventilation status, guiding ventilator setting adjustments.[1] For instance, a high partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) in arterial blood may require increasing the respiratory rate or tidal volume to enhance carbon dioxide (CO2) elimination, while a low partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (PaO2) may necessitate increasing the fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) or positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) to improve oxygenation. Continuous monitoring and adjustment based on ABG results are vital for preventing complications and improving outcomes.[2] This activity provides a guide on adjusting ventilator parameters based on ABG results, emphasizing individualized care and evidence-based practices.">
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<meta name="og:description" content="Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis is crucial for treating patients who are critically ill and on mechanical ventilation. This test provides vital information about acid-base balance, oxygenation, and ventilation status, guiding ventilator setting adjustments.[1] For instance, a high partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) in arterial blood may require increasing the respiratory rate or tidal volume to enhance carbon dioxide (CO2) elimination, while a low partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (PaO2) may necessitate increasing the fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) or positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) to improve oxygenation. Continuous monitoring and adjustment based on ABG results are vital for preventing complications and improving outcomes.[2] This activity provides a guide on adjusting ventilator parameters based on ABG results, emphasizing individualized care and evidence-based practices.">
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</svg> Books</a></div><div class="jr-rhead f1 flexh"><div class="head"></div><div class="body"><div class="t">Adjusting Ventilator Settings Based on ABG Results</div><div class="j">StatPearls [Internet]</div></div><div class="tail"></div></div><div id="jr-tb2"><a id="jr-bkhelp-sw" class="btn wsprkl hidden" title="Help with NLM PubReader">?</a><a id="jr-help-sw" class="btn wsprkl hidden" title="Settings and typography in NLM PubReader"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 512 512" preserveAspectRatio="none"><path d="M462,283.742v-55.485l-29.981-10.662c-11.431-4.065-20.628-12.794-25.274-24.001 c-0.002-0.004-0.004-0.009-0.006-0.013c-4.659-11.235-4.333-23.918,0.889-34.903l13.653-28.724l-39.234-39.234l-28.72,13.652 c-10.979,5.219-23.68,5.546-34.908,0.889c-0.005-0.002-0.01-0.003-0.014-0.005c-11.215-4.65-19.933-13.834-24-25.273L283.741,50 h-55.484l-10.662,29.981c-4.065,11.431-12.794,20.627-24.001,25.274c-0.005,0.002-0.009,0.004-0.014,0.005 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class="title" itemprop="name">Adjusting Ventilator Settings Based on ABG Results</span></h1><p class="contribs">Hassan W, Elkhatieb M.</p><p class="fm-aai"><a href="#_NBK606131_pubdet_">Publication Details</a></p></div></div><div class="jig-ncbiinpagenav body-content whole_rhythm" data-jigconfig="allHeadingLevels: ['h2'],smoothScroll: false" itemprop="text"><div id="article-161107.s1"><h2 id="_article-161107_s1_">Definition/Introduction</h2><p>Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis is crucial for treating patients who are critically ill and on mechanical ventilation. This test provides vital information about acid-base balance, oxygenation, and ventilation status, guiding ventilator setting adjustments.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r1" rid="article-161107.r1">[1]</a> For instance, a high partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) in arterial blood may require increasing the respiratory rate or tidal volume to enhance carbon dioxide (CO2) elimination, while a low partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (PaO2) may necessitate increasing the fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) or positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) to improve oxygenation. Continuous monitoring and adjustment based on ABG results are vital for preventing complications and improving outcomes.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r2" rid="article-161107.r2">[2]</a> This activity provides a guide on adjusting ventilator parameters based on ABG results, emphasizing individualized care and evidence-based practices.</p><p>
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<b>Basic Ventilator Parameters</b>
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</p><p>Ventilator parameters are critical in cases requiring mechanical ventilation. Understanding and properly adjusting these parameters are essential for optimizing patient outcomes. The key adjustable ventilator parameters include the tidal volume (Vt), frequency (F), fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2), PEEP, inspiratory time (Ti), inspiratory flow (V’), and inspiratory-to-expiratory ratio (I:E).</p><p>
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<b>Tidal volume</b>
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</p><p>Vt is the amount of air delivered to the lungs with each ventilator breath. Vt is typically set based on the patient’s predicted body weight. Proper Vt setting is crucial to prevent ventilator-induced lung injury. Lower Vts are generally preferred to reduce the risk of overdistension and subsequent lung damage, particularly in conditions like acute respiratory distress syndrome.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r3" rid="article-161107.r3">[3]</a></p><p>
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<b>Frequency</b>
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</p><p>F or respiratory rate is the number of breaths the ventilator delivers per minute. Adjusting the respiratory rate helps manage the patient’s CO2 levels. A higher respiratory rate can help reduce PaCO2 in those who RE hypercapnic, but it must be balanced to avoid intrinsic PEEP and ensure adequate expiratory time.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r4" rid="article-161107.r4">[4]</a></p><p>
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<b>Fraction of inspired oxygen</b>
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</p><p>FiO2 is the concentration of oxygen delivered to the patient. FiO2 is expressed as a fraction of 1.0 (eg, 0.21 for room air and 1.0 for 100% oxygen). FiO2 is adjusted to maintain adequate oxygenation. Prolonged exposure to high oxygen levels can cause oxygen toxicity, so the goal is to use the lowest FiO2 that achieves satisfactory oxygenation.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r5" rid="article-161107.r5">[5]</a></p><p>
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<b>Positive end-expiratory pressure</b>
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</p><p>PEEP is the pressure in the lungs (above atmospheric pressure) that remains at the end of the expiratory phase of ventilation. PEEP helps to keep alveoli open, improve oxygenation, and prevent atelectasis. However, excessive PEEP can lead to overdistension and barotrauma. The optimal PEEP level balances these factors to maximize alveolar recruitment while minimizing lung injury.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r6" rid="article-161107.r6">[6]</a></p><p>
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<b>Inspiratory time</b>
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</p><p>Ti is the duration of the inspiratory phase of ventilation. Adjusting inspiratory time can influence gas exchange and patient comfort. Longer inspiratory times can improve oxygenation but may increase auto-PEEP risk if not properly managed.</p><p>
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<b>Inspiratory flow</b>
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</p><p>V’ is the rate at which air is delivered to the patient during the inspiratory phase. Adjusting inspiratory flow can affect the distribution of ventilation within the lungs and the patient’s work of breathing. Faster flow rates can decrease inspiratory time and increase peak airway pressures.</p><p>
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<b>Inspiratory-to-expiratory ratio</b>
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</p><p>I:E is the ratio of the duration of the inspiratory phase to the expiratory phase. This variable is typically set to 1:2 to mimic normal breathing patterns. Adjusting the I:E ratio can improve oxygenation and CO2 clearance. An inverse I:E ratio (more time in inspiration) may be used in severe hypoxemia but requires careful monitoring to avoid auto-PEEP.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r7" rid="article-161107.r7">[7]</a></p><p>
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<b>Basic Components of Arterial Blood Gas Analysis</b>
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</p><p>ABG analysis evaluates a patient's oxygenation, ventilation, and acid-base balance. The primary components of an ABG report include pH, PaCO2, PaO2, bicarbonate (HCO3-), and base excess. Together, these parameters provide critical insights for diagnosing and managing respiratory, metabolic, and systemic conditions.</p><p>
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<b>pH</b>
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</p><p>The pH measures the hydrogen ion concentration in the blood, indicating the acidity or alkalinity. The normal pH range is 7.35 to 7.45. A pH below 7.35 indicates acidosis, while a pH above 7.45 indicates alkalosis. This variable determines the acid-base balance and guides the diagnosis of respiratory and metabolic disorders. </p><p>
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<b>Partial pressure of carbon dioxide</b>
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</p><p>The PaCO2 measures the pressure of carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood. The normal PaCO2 range is 35 to 45 mm Hg. An elevated PaCO2 (>45 mm Hg) indicates hypercapnia, commonly due to hypoventilation. Decreased PaCO2 (<35 mm Hg) indicates hypocapnia, often from hyperventilation. PaCO2 is crucial for assessing the respiratory component of the acid-base balance.</p><p>
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<b>Partial pressure of oxygen</b>
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</p><p>The PaO2 measures the pressure of oxygen dissolved in the blood. The normal PaO2 range is 80 to 100 mm Hg. PaO2 is essential for evaluating oxygenation status. Low PaO2 (<80 mm Hg) indicates hypoxemia, which can result from various respiratory disorders.</p><p>
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<b>Bicarbonate</b>
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</p><p>HCO3- is a base that helps buffer the blood’s pH. The normal HCO3- range is 22 to 26 mmol/L. HCO3- levels reflect the metabolic component of the acid-base balance. Increased HCO3- indicates metabolic alkalosis, while decreased HCO3- indicates metabolic acidosis.</p><p>
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<b>Base excess</b>
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</p><p>Base excess (BE) measures the amount of excess or deficient base in the blood. The normal range is -2 to +2 mmol/L. A positive BE indicates metabolic alkalosis, while a negative BE indicates metabolic acidosis. BE helps assess the metabolic component of acid-base disorders.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r8" rid="article-161107.r8">[8]</a></p><p>
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<b>Basic Interpretation of ABG Results</b>
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</p><p>ABG analysis is crucial in assessing and managing acid-base imbalance. The body compensates through respiratory or metabolic adjustments to restore balance. Information from ABG analysis helps determine the kind and severity of imbalance, guiding treatment.</p><p>
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<b>Acidosis vs alkalosis</b>
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</p><p>Respiratory acidosis is characterized by a low pH and a high PaCO2. The causes of this condition include hypoventilation from conditions such as respiratory depression, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and neuromuscular disorders. Metabolic acidosis is characterized by low pH and HCO3-. Causes may include conditions such as diabetic ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, and renal failure.</p><p>Respiratory alkalosis is characterized by a high pH and a low PaCO2. Causes include hyperventilation due to conditions such as anxiety, pain, and hypoxemia. Metabolic alkalosis is characterized by high pH and HCO3-. Possible etiologies include vomiting, diuretic use, and hypokalemia.</p><p>
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<b>Compensation mechanisms</b>
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</p><p>The respiratory system adjusts ventilation to correct metabolic acid-base disturbances (respiratory compensation). An example is increasing ventilation to decrease PaCO2 in metabolic acidosis. Meanwhile, the kidneys adjust bicarbonate reabsorption and hydrogen ion excretion to correct respiratory acid-base disturbances (metabolic compensation). An example is increasing HCO3- reabsorption in chronic respiratory acidosis.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r9" rid="article-161107.r9">[9]</a> </p></div><div id="article-161107.s2"><h2 id="_article-161107_s2_">Issues of Concern</h2><p>
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<b>Adjusting Ventilator Settings Based on Arterial Blood Gas Analysis Results</b>
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</p><p>Ventilator setting adjustments are often guided by both clinical evaluation and ABG analysis. Specific strategies are explained below.</p><p>
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<b>Hypoxemia</b>
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</p><p>Hypoxemia is characterized by a low PaO2. Increasing FiO2 can improve oxygenation. However, prolonged high FiO2 can lead to oxygen toxicity. Thus, the goal is to maintain PaO2 within the target range using the lowest  FiO2 required. Increasing PEEP is a strategy that improves oxygenation by keeping the alveoli open. Optimal PEEP settings can enhance gas exchange and reduce the risk of atelectasis. Longer Ti can improve oxygenation but may increase auto-PEEP risk if not properly managed. An inverse I:E ratio may be used in severe hypoxemia but requires careful monitoring to avoid auto-PEEP.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r10" rid="article-161107.r10">[10]</a><a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r11" rid="article-161107.r11">[11]</a></p><p>
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<b>Acidosis</b>
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</p><p>Acidosis is characterized by a low arterial pH. Respiratory acidosis features a low arterial pH due to a high PaCO2. Increasing the respiratory rate helps remove CO2, thus lowering PaCO2. Care must be taken to avoid inducing respiratory alkalosis or auto-PEEP due to insufficient exhalation time. Increasing Vt can also enhance CO2 removal. However, excessive Vts can lead to volutrauma and barotrauma, underscoring the need for balance. Metabolic acidosis is characterized by a low HCO3-. Addressing the underlying metabolic cause while maintaining adequate ventilation is the principle of ventilator management in metabolic acidosis.</p><p>
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<b>Alkalosis</b>
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</p><p>Alkalosis features a high arterial pH, which can arise from either a respiratory or metabolic source. Respiratory alkalosis arises from a low PaCO2. Reducing the respiratory rate allows more CO2 to accumulate in the alveoli, thereby increasing PaCO2 and improving respiratory alkalosis. Lowering the Vt can increase PaCO2 levels, but this measure must be taken cautiously to ensure adequate ventilation. Metabolic alkalosis is characterized by a low HCO3-. The remedy is correcting the underlying metabolic issue while ensuring ventilation is adjusted to avoid further alkalosis.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r12" rid="article-161107.r12">[12]</a><a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r13" rid="article-161107.r13">[13]</a></p></div><div id="article-161107.s3"><h2 id="_article-161107_s3_">Clinical Significance</h2><p>
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<b>Considerations for Adjusting Ventilator Settings in Special Circumstances</b>
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</p><p>Adjusting ventilator settings according to the specific respiratory condition of the patient is critical to optimizing outcomes and minimizing complications. Below are special considerations for common respiratory conditions.</p><p>
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<b>Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease</b>
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</p><p>Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung condition that obstructs airflow, primarily caused by long-term exposure to irritating gases or particles—most often from cigarette smoke. COPD encompasses emphysema, is characterized by alveolar destruction and chronic bronchitis, and is marked by long-term cough with mucus due to airway inflammation. Patients with COPD often encounter significant challenges, such as hypercapnia and dynamic hyperinflation during mechanical ventilation. These issues arise due to increased airway resistance and high pulmonary dead space, which collectively elevate the work of breathing and complicate ventilatory management. Adjusting ventilator settings appropriately is crucial to mitigate these complications and optimize respiratory support.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r14" rid="article-161107.r14">[14]</a></p><p>
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<b>Ventilator adjustments in patients with c<b>hronic obstructive pulmonary disease</b></b>
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</p><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Using low tidal volumes: Applying lower tidal volumes (6-8 mL/kg ideal body weight) helps prevent barotrauma and volutrauma by minimizing the risk of lung overdistension.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Managing PEEP carefully: While PEEP can help maintain alveolar recruitment, excessive PEEP may worsen dynamic hyperinflation. The optimal PEEP level should be carefully titrated to balance oxygenation improvement and avoid auto-PEEP.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Adjusting respiratory rate: A lower respiratory rate allows for longer exhalation times, reducing the risk of dynamic hyperinflation and auto-PEEP.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r15" rid="article-161107.r15">[15]</a></div></li></ul><p>
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<b>Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome</b>
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</p><p>Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a severe pulmonary condition marked by poor oxygenation and reduced lung compliance. ARDS involves capillary endothelial injury and diffuse alveolar damage. The condition is associated with high mortality and limited effective treatments. Mechanical ventilation for patients with ARDS is associated with a high risk of ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). Managing ventilation in patients with ARDS requires a balance between adequate oxygenation and minimizing lung injury. This intervention is considered a lung-protective ventilation strategy.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r16" rid="article-161107.r16">[16]</a> </p><p>
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<b>Ventilator adjustments in patients with a<b>cute respiratory distress syndrome</b></b>
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</p><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Low tidal volume ventilation: Using low tidal volumes (4-6 mL/kg predicted body weight) is crucial to minimize barotrauma and volutrauma. This strategy has been shown to improve survival in patients with ARDS.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Appropriate PEEP levels: Applying PEEP helps prevent alveolar collapse and improves oxygenation. The PEEP level should be adjusted to optimize lung recruitment while avoiding overdistension.    </div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Avoiding high plateau pressures: Plateau pressures lower than 30 cm H2O must be targeted. The plateau pressure is a measure of pulmonary compliance.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm"><div>Avoiding high driving pressure: Monitoring and minimizing driving pressure—the difference between plateau pressure and PEEP—is essential for reducing the risk of VILI. Targeting a driving pressure below 15 cm H2O is associated with better outcomes.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r17" rid="article-161107.r17">[17]</a><a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r18" rid="article-161107.r18">[18]</a></div></li></ul><p>
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<b>Bronchial Asthma</b>
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</p><p>Bronchial asthma is a heterogeneous disease characterized by chronic airway inflammation, airway hyperresponsiveness, and variable airflow obstruction. Symptoms of asthma include wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing which can vary over time and in intensity. Patients with asthma are at risk of dynamic hyperinflation and auto-PEEP during mechanical ventilation.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r19" rid="article-161107.r19">[19]</a></p><p>
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<b>Ventilator adjustments in patients with bronchial asthma</b>
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</p><p>Lower tidal volumes, slower respiratory rates, and shorter inspiratory times are recommended to allow for adequate exhalation time. Avoiding high PEEP levels is essential to prevent dynamic hyperinflation in patients with bronchial asthma.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r20" rid="article-161107.r20">[20]</a></p><p>
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<b>Restrictive Lung Diseases</b>
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</p><p>Restrictive lung diseases are a diverse group of pulmonary disorders characterized by reduced lung distensibility, thus limiting lung expansion and decreasing lung volumes, particularly total lung capacity. Restrictive lung diseases can result from intrinsic factors, like interstitial lung diseases, or extrinsic factors, such as neuromuscular diseases, pleural disorders, obesity, and thoracic deformities that limit chest wall movement.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r21" rid="article-161107.r21">[21]</a></p><p>
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<b>Ventilator adjustments in patients with restrictive lung diseases</b>
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</p><p>Patients with restrictive lung disease usually require higher PEEP levels to achieve adequate oxygenation and lower tidal volumes to prevent lung injury.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r22" rid="article-161107.r22">[22]</a></p><p>
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<b>Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema</b>
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</p><p>Cardiogenic pulmonary edema is the abnormal fluid accumulation in the lung parenchyma, impairing gas exchange at the alveolar level and potentially leading to respiratory failure. The condition occurs due to elevated hydrostatic pressure from conditions like left ventricular dysfunction, valvular disease, and arrhythmias.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r23" rid="article-161107.r23">[23]</a></p><p>
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<b>Ventilator adjustments in patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema</b>
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</p><p>High PEEP levels are used to reduce pulmonary edema and improve oxygenation. Noninvasive ventilation must be considered to reduce the need for invasive ventilation.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r24" rid="article-161107.r24">[24]</a></p></div><div id="article-161107.s4"><h2 id="_article-161107_s4_">Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Interventions</h2><p>Mechanical ventilation requires a collaborative, interprofessional approach to ensure optimal outcomes. Critical care nurses and respiratory therapists are pivotal in continuously monitoring and adjusting ventilator settings. These professionals must be familiar with interpreting ABG results and understanding the physiological implications of pH, PaCO<sub>2</sub>, and PaO<sub>2</sub> changes. Their expertise in making real-time adjustments to basic ventilator settings based on ABG results is essential to maintaining optimal gas exchange and preventing complications. Moreover, critical care clinicians and advanced nursing healthcare professionals provide oversight and make high-level decisions regarding ventilator management.</p><p>Implementing safety protocols to prevent ventilator-associated complications such as barotrauma, volutrauma, and oxygen toxicity is vital. Regular training on ventilator management and simulation exercises can help healthcare teams stay proficient in emergency procedures and routine adjustments. Adhering to evidence-based guidelines for adjusting ventilator parameters based on ABG results ensures that patient care is both effective and up-to-date. Continuous professional development and staying in line with the latest research in ventilator management are necessary for all team members.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r25" rid="article-161107.r25">[25]</a></p></div><div id="article-161107.s5"><h2 id="_article-161107_s5_">Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Monitoring</h2><p>Effective monitoring of patients on mechanical ventilation requires a collaborative approach among nurses, respiratory therapists, and critical care clinicians These team members must continuously assess and respond to changes in patient status and ventilator parameters, using their expertise to interpret ABG results and adjust ventilator settings accordingly.<a class="bibr" href="#article-161107.r26" rid="article-161107.r26">[26]</a></p></div><div id="article-161107.s6"><h2 id="_article-161107_s6_">Review Questions</h2><ul><li class="half_rhythm"><div>
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</div></li></ul></div><div id="article-161107.s7"><h2 id="_article-161107_s7_">References</h2><dl class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r1">Kelly AM, Klim S, Rees SE. Agreement between mathematically arterialised venous versus arterial blood gas values in patients undergoing non-invasive ventilation: a cohort study. <span><span class="ref-journal">Emerg Med J. </span>2014 Oct;<span class="ref-vol">31</span>(e1):e46-9.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24136117" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 24136117</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>2.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r2">Menzel M, Soukup J, Henze D, Engelbrecht K, Senderreck M, Scharf A, Rieger A, Grond S. 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The importance of arterial blood gas analysis as a systemic diagnosis approach in assessing and preventing chronic diseases, from emergency medicine to the daily practice. <span><span class="ref-journal">Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. </span>2023 Dec;<span class="ref-vol">27</span>(23):11653-11663.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38095412" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 38095412</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>9.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r9">Zadek F, Danieli A, Brusatori S, Giosa L, Krbec M, Antolini L, Fumagalli R, Langer T. Combining the Physical-Chemical Approach with Standard Base Excess to Understand the Compensation of Respiratory Acid-Base Derangements: An Individual Participant Meta-analysis Approach to Data from Multiple Canine and Human Experiments. <span><span class="ref-journal">Anesthesiology. </span>2024 Jan 01;<span class="ref-vol">140</span>(1):116-125.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37616330" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 37616330</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>10.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r10">Florio G, Zanella A, Slobod D, Guzzardella A, Protti I, Carlesso E, Canakoglu A, Fumagalli J, Scaravilli V, Colombo SM, Caccioppola A, Brioni M, Pesenti AM, Grasselli G. Impact of Positive End-Expiratory Pressure and FiO<sub>2</sub> on Lung Mechanics and Intrapulmonary Shunt in Mechanically Ventilated Patients with ARDS Due to COVID-19 Pneumonia. <span><span class="ref-journal">J Intensive Care Med. </span>2024 May;<span class="ref-vol">39</span>(5):420-428.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37926984" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 37926984</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>11.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r11">Pan L, Yang L, Gao L, Zhao Z, Zhang J. Individualized PEEP without Recruitment Maneuvers Improves Intraoperative Oxygenation: A Randomized Controlled Study. <span><span class="ref-journal">Bioengineering (Basel). </span>2023 Oct 09;<span class="ref-vol">10</span>(10)</span> [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC10604161/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC10604161</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37892902" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 37892902</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>12.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r12">Arena A, Miller E. Respiratory Acid-Base Disorders. <span><span class="ref-journal">Emerg Med Clin North Am. </span>2023 Nov;<span class="ref-vol">41</span>(4):863-875.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37758429" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 37758429</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>13.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r13">Sanghavi SF, Swenson ER. Arterial Blood Gases and Acid-Base Regulation. <span><span class="ref-journal">Semin Respir Crit Care Med. </span>2023 Oct;<span class="ref-vol">44</span>(5):612-626.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37369215" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 37369215</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>14.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r14">Cornelius T. Clinical guideline highlights for the hospitalist: GOLD COPD update 2024. <span><span class="ref-journal">J Hosp Med. </span>2024 Sep;<span class="ref-vol">19</span>(9):818-820.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38797887" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 38797887</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>15.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r15">Liao KM, Lu HY, Chen CY, Kuo LT, Tang BR. The impact of comorbidities on prolonged mechanical ventilation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. <span><span class="ref-journal">BMC Pulm Med. </span>2024 May 25;<span class="ref-vol">24</span>(1):257.</span> [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC11128105/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC11128105</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38796444" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 38796444</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>16.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r16">Camporota L, Calfee CS, Grasselli G. Acute respiratory distress syndrome guidelines: oceans apart or rivers that merge? <span><span class="ref-journal">Intensive Care Med. </span>2024 Jun;<span class="ref-vol">50</span>(6):941-943.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38709291" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 38709291</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>17.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r17">Qadir N, Sahetya S, Munshi L, Summers C, Abrams D, Beitler J, Bellani G, Brower RG, Burry L, Chen JT, Hodgson C, Hough CL, Lamontagne F, Law A, Papazian L, Pham T, Rubin E, Siuba M, Telias I, Patolia S, Chaudhuri D, Walkey A, Rochwerg B, Fan E. An Update on Management of Adult Patients with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guideline. <span><span class="ref-journal">Am J Respir Crit Care Med. </span>2024 Jan 01;<span class="ref-vol">209</span>(1):24-36.</span> [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC10870893/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC10870893</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38032683" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 38032683</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>18.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r18">Grasselli G, Calfee CS, Camporota L, Poole D, Amato MBP, Antonelli M, Arabi YM, Baroncelli F, Beitler JR, Bellani G, Bellingan G, Blackwood B, Bos LDJ, Brochard L, Brodie D, Burns KEA, Combes A, D'Arrigo S, De Backer D, Demoule A, Einav S, Fan E, Ferguson ND, Frat JP, Gattinoni L, Guérin C, Herridge MS, Hodgson C, Hough CL, Jaber S, Juffermans NP, Karagiannidis C, Kesecioglu J, Kwizera A, Laffey JG, Mancebo J, Matthay MA, McAuley DF, Mercat A, Meyer NJ, Moss M, Munshi L, Myatra SN, Ng Gong M, Papazian L, Patel BK, Pellegrini M, Perner A, Pesenti A, Piquilloud L, Qiu H, Ranieri MV, Riviello E, Slutsky AS, Stapleton RD, Summers C, Thompson TB, Valente Barbas CS, Villar J, Ware LB, Weiss B, Zampieri FG, Azoulay E, Cecconi M., European Society of Intensive Care Medicine Taskforce on ARDS. ESICM guidelines on acute respiratory distress syndrome: definition, phenotyping and respiratory support strategies. <span><span class="ref-journal">Intensive Care Med. </span>2023 Jul;<span class="ref-vol">49</span>(7):727-759.</span> [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC10354163/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC10354163</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37326646" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 37326646</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>19.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r19">Gayen S, Dachert S, Lashari BH, Gordon M, Desai P, Criner GJ, Cardet JC, Shenoy K. Critical Care Management of Severe Asthma Exacerbations. <span><span class="ref-journal">J Clin Med. </span>2024 Feb 01;<span class="ref-vol">13</span>(3)</span> [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC10856115/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC10856115</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38337552" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 38337552</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>20.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r20">Oddo M, Feihl F, Schaller MD, Perret C. Management of mechanical ventilation in acute severe asthma: practical aspects. <span><span class="ref-journal">Intensive Care Med. </span>2006 Apr;<span class="ref-vol">32</span>(4):501-10.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16552615" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 16552615</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>21.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r21">Martinez-Pitre PJ, Sabbula BR, Cascella M. <span class="ref-journal">StatPearls [Internet].</span> StatPearls Publishing; Treasure Island (FL): Jul 25, 2023. Restrictive Lung Disease. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32809715" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 32809715</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>22.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r22">Luo F, Annane D, Orlikowski D, He L, Yang M, Zhou M, Liu GJ. Invasive versus non-invasive ventilation for acute respiratory failure in neuromuscular disease and chest wall disorders. <span><span class="ref-journal">Cochrane Database Syst Rev. </span>2017 Dec 04;<span class="ref-vol">12</span>(12):CD008380.</span> [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC6486162/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC6486162</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29199768" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 29199768</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>23.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r23">Malek R, Soufi S. <span class="ref-journal">StatPearls [Internet].</span> StatPearls Publishing; Treasure Island (FL): Apr 7, 2023. Pulmonary Edema. [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32491543" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 32491543</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>24.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r24">Zanza C, Saglietti F, Tesauro M, Longhitano Y, Savioli G, Balzanelli MG, Romenskaya T, Cofone L, Pindinello I, Racca G, Racca F. Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema in Emergency Medicine. <span><span class="ref-journal">Adv Respir Med. </span>2023 Oct 13;<span class="ref-vol">91</span>(5):445-463.</span> [<a href="/pmc/articles/PMC10604083/" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pmc">PMC free article<span class="bk_prnt">: PMC10604083</span></a>] [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37887077" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 37887077</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>25.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r25">Tesseyman S, Poulsen T, Rainsdon-Meek S, Leary H, Sorensen U, Plummer K. Decision-based learning for teaching arterial blood gas analysis. <span><span class="ref-journal">Int J Nurs Educ Scholarsh. </span>2023 Jan 01;<span class="ref-vol">20</span>(1)</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37470497" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 37470497</span></a>]</div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>26.</dt><dd><div class="bk_ref" id="article-161107.r26">Pruitt B. Strategies for interpreting arterial blood gases. <span><span class="ref-journal">Nursing. </span>2024 Jan 01;<span class="ref-vol">54</span>(1):16-21.</span> [<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38126981" ref="pagearea=cite-ref&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">PubMed<span class="bk_prnt">: 38126981</span></a>]</div></dd></dl></dl></div><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_top_margin">
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<b>Disclosure: </b>Wael Hassan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt></dt><dd><div><p class="no_top_margin">
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<b>Disclosure: </b>Mohamed Elkhatieb declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.</p></div></dd></dl></dl></div></div></div><div class="fm-sec"><h2 id="_NBK606131_pubdet_">Publication Details</h2><h3>Author Information and Affiliations</h3><p class="contrib-group"><h4>Authors</h4><span itemprop="author">Wael Hassan</span><sup>1</sup>; <span itemprop="author">Mohamed Elkhatieb</span><sup>2</sup>.</p><h4>Affiliations</h4><div class="affiliation"><sup>1</sup> Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>2</sup> Tallaght University Hospital</div><h3>Publication History</h3><p class="small">Last Update: <span itemprop="dateModified">August 11, 2024</span>.</p><h3>Copyright</h3><div><div class="half_rhythm"><a href="/books/about/copyright/">Copyright</a> © 2025, StatPearls Publishing LLC.<p class="small">
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This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
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(<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">
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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
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</a>), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.
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</p></div></div><h3>Publisher</h3><p><a href="https://www.statpearls.com/" ref="pagearea=page-banner&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher">StatPearls Publishing</a>, Treasure Island (FL)</p><h3>NLM Citation</h3><p>Hassan W, Elkhatieb M. Adjusting Ventilator Settings Based on ABG Results. [Updated 2024 Aug 11]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan-. <span class="bk_cite_avail"></span></p></div><div class="small-screen-prev"></div><div class="small-screen-next"></div></article></div><div id="jr-scripts"><script src="/corehtml/pmc/jatsreader/ptpmc_3.22/js/libs.min.js"> </script><script src="/corehtml/pmc/jatsreader/ptpmc_3.22/js/jr.min.js"> </script></div></div>
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