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src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-nicecg32guid-lrg.png" alt="Cover of Nutrition support for adults: oral nutrition support, enteral tube feeding and parenteral nutrition" /></a></div><div class="bkr_bib"><h1 id="_NBK553310_"><span itemprop="name">Nutrition support for adults: oral nutrition support, enteral tube feeding and parenteral nutrition</span></h1><p><i>NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 32</i></p><div class="half_rhythm">London: <a href="http://www.nice.org.uk/" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher"><span itemprop="publisher">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)</span></a>; <span itemprop="datePublished">2017 Aug</span>.<div class="small">ISBN-13: <span itemprop="isbn">978-1-4731-1910-9</span></div></div><div><a href="/books/about/copyright/">Copyright</a> © NICE 2019.</div></div><div class="bkr_clear"></div></div><div id="cha.box1" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><p>This guideline is the basis of QS24.</p></div><div id="cha.s1"><h2 id="_cha_s1_">Overview</h2><p>This guideline covers identifying and caring for adults who are malnourished or at risk of malnutrition in hospital or in their own home or a care home. It offers advice on how oral, enteral tube feeding and parenteral nutrition support should be started, administered and stopped. It aims to support healthcare professionals identify malnourished people and help them to choose the most appropriate form of support.</p><p>In August 2017, we updated the links in the footnotes to <a href="#cha.lt57">recommendations 1.3.4</a> and <a href="#cha.lt151">1.8.15</a>. <a href="#cha.lt133">Recommendation 1.7.17</a> was also updated and links added to National Patient Safety Agency documents.</p><div id="cha.s1.1"><h3>Who is it for?</h3><ul id="cha.l1"><li id="cha.lt1" class="half_rhythm"><div>All healthcare workers in hospital and the community who are directly involved in patient care</div></li><li id="cha.lt2" class="half_rhythm"><div>People who are malnourished or at risk of malnutrition in hospital or in their own home or a care home and their families and carers</div></li></ul></div></div><div id="cha.s2"><h2 id="_cha_s2_">Introduction</h2><p>Malnutrition is a state in which a deficiency of nutrients such as energy, protein, vitamins and minerals causes measurable adverse effects on body composition, function or clinical outcome. In this guideline we do not use the term to cover excess nutrient provision.</p><p>Malnutrition is both a cause and a consequence of ill health. It is common and increases a patient’s vulnerability to disease. Methods to improve or maintain nutritional intake are known as nutrition support. These include:
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<ul id="cha.l2"><li id="cha.lt3" class="half_rhythm"><div>oral nutrition support – for example, fortified food, additional snacks and/or sip feeds</div></li><li id="cha.lt4" class="half_rhythm"><div>enteral tube feeding – the delivery of a nutritionally complete feed directly into the gut via a tube</div></li><li id="cha.lt5" class="half_rhythm"><div>parenteral nutrition – the delivery of nutrition intravenously.</div></li></ul></p><p>These methods can improve outcomes, but decisions on the most effective and safe methods are complex.</p><p>Currently, knowledge of the causes, effects and treatment of malnutrition among healthcare professionals in the UK is poor. This guideline aims to help healthcare professionals correctly identify people in hospital and the community who need nutrition support, and enable them to choose and deliver the most appropriate nutrition support at the most appropriate time.</p><p>The recommendations in this guideline were graded according to the quality of the evidence they were based on. The gradings are available in the <a href="http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg32/evidence" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NICE guideline</a> and are not shown in this web version.</p></div><div id="cha.s3"><h2 id="_cha_s3_">Developing this guideline</h2><p>The recommendations in this guideline were systematically developed and based on trial evidence when possible. However, the guideline development group met many difficulties including: the breadth of the remit; limited time and resources; and an evidence base that was difficult to interpret. There were three main reasons for this difficulty in interpretation.</p><ul id="cha.l3"><li id="cha.lt6" class="half_rhythm"><div>Most of the evidence consisted of small trials, applying different interventions and outcome measures to variable populations in different settings. This not only made individual trials statistically underpowered, but also limited the possibilities for meta-analyses.</div></li><li id="cha.lt7" class="half_rhythm"><div>It was difficult to make recommendations for people in the community when most research was conducted in hospitals.</div></li><li id="cha.lt8" class="half_rhythm"><div>Most randomised trials of enteral tube feeding or parenteral nutrition support have excluded, on ethical grounds, patients who were either already malnourished or were likely to eat little or nothing for several days (since those allocated to control groups might have had feeding withheld for significant periods). The trials therefore examined ‘elective’ supplementary use of enteral tube feeding or parenteral nutrition support rather than their use for any of the usual clinical indications.</div></li></ul></div><div id="cha.s4"><h2 id="_cha_s4_">Patient-centred care</h2><p>This guideline offers best practice advice on the care of adults who are malnourished or at risk of malnutrition.</p><p>Treatment and care should take into account patients’ needs and preferences. People with malnutrition should have the opportunity to make informed decisions about their care and treatment, in partnership with their health professionals. When patients do not have the capacity to make decisions, healthcare professionals should follow the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/reference-guide-to-consent-for-examination-or-treatment-second-edition" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Department of Health’s advice on consent</a> and the <a href="http://www.justice.gov.uk/protecting-the-vulnerable/mental-capacity-act" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">code of practice that accompanies the Mental Capacity Act</a>. In Wales, healthcare professionals should follow <a href="http://www.wales.nhs.uk/consent" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">advice on consent from the Welsh Government</a>.</p><p>Good communication between healthcare professionals and patients is essential. It should be supported by evidence-based written information tailored to the patient’s needs. Treatment and care, and the information patients are given about it, should be culturally appropriate. It should also be accessible to people with additional needs such as physical, sensory or learning disabilities, and to people who do not speak or read English.</p><p>Carers and relatives should have the opportunity to be involved in decisions about the patient’s care and treatment, if the patient agrees to this. Carers and relatives should also be given the information and support they need.</p><p>Recommendations in this guideline apply to all patients with malnutrition or at risk of malnutrition, whether they are in hospital or at home. Good coordination between the hospital and the home or community is needed when patients are transferred between settings.</p></div><div id="cha.s5"><h2 id="_cha_s5_">Key priorities for implementation</h2><div id="cha.s5.1"><h3>Key clinical priorities</h3><ul id="cha.l4"><li id="cha.lt9" class="half_rhythm"><div>Screening for malnutrition and the risk of malnutrition should be carried out by healthcare professionals with appropriate skills and training.</div></li><li id="cha.lt10" class="half_rhythm"><div>All hospital inpatients on admission and all outpatients at their first clinic appointment should be screened. Screening should be repeated weekly for inpatients and when there is clinical concern for outpatients. People in care homes should be screened on admission and when there is clinical concern.</div></li><li id="cha.lt11" class="half_rhythm"><div>Hospital departments who identify groups of patients with low risk of malnutrition may opt out of screening these groups. Opt-out decisions should follow an explicit process via the local clinical governance structure involving experts in nutrition support.</div></li><li id="cha.lt12" class="half_rhythm"><div>Nutrition support should be considered in people who are malnourished, as defined by any of the following:
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<dl id="cha.l5" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>–</dt><dd id="cha.lt13"><p class="no_top_margin">a body mass index (BMI) of less than 18.5 kg/m<sup>2</sup></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>–</dt><dd id="cha.lt14"><p class="no_top_margin">unintentional weight loss greater than 10% within the last 3–6 months</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>–</dt><dd id="cha.lt15"><p class="no_top_margin">a BMI of less than 20 kg/m<sup>2</sup> and unintentional weight loss greater than 5% within the last 3–6 months.</p></dd></dl></dl></div></li><li id="cha.lt16" class="half_rhythm"><div>Nutrition support should be considered in people at risk of malnutrition, defined as those who have:
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<dl id="cha.l6" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>–</dt><dd id="cha.lt17"><p class="no_top_margin">eaten little or nothing for more than 5 days and/or are likely to eat little or nothing for 5 days or longer</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>–</dt><dd id="cha.lt18"><p class="no_top_margin">a poor absorptive capacity and/or high nutrient losses and/or increased nutritional needs from causes such as catabolism.</p></dd></dl></dl></div></li><li id="cha.lt19" class="half_rhythm"><div>Healthcare professionals should consider using oral, enteral or parenteral nutrition support, alone or in combination, for people who are either malnourished or at risk of malnutrition, as defined above. Potential swallowing problems should be taken into account.</div></li></ul></div><div id="cha.s5.2"><h3>Key organisational priorities</h3><ul id="cha.l7"><li id="cha.lt20" class="half_rhythm"><div>All healthcare professionals who are directly involved in patient care should receive education and training, relevant to their post, on the importance of providing adequate nutrition.</div></li><li id="cha.lt21" class="half_rhythm"><div>Healthcare professionals should ensure that all people who need nutrition support receive coordinated care from a multidisciplinary team.<sup><a href="#cha.fn1">[1]</a></sup></div></li><li id="cha.lt22" class="half_rhythm"><div>All acute hospital trusts should employ at least one specialist nutrition support nurse.</div></li><li id="cha.lt23" class="half_rhythm"><div>All hospital trusts should have a nutrition steering committee working within the clinical governance framework.</div></li></ul></div></div><div id="cha.s6"><h2 id="_cha_s6_">1. Guidance</h2><div id="cha.s6.1"><h3>1.1. Organisation of nutrition support in hospital and the community</h3><dl id="cha.l8" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.1.1.</dt><dd id="cha.lt24"><p class="no_top_margin">All healthcare professionals who are directly involved in patient care should receive education and training, relevant to their post, on the importance of providing adequate nutrition. Education and training should cover:
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<ul id="cha.l9"><li id="cha.lt25" class="half_rhythm"><div>nutritional needs and indications for nutrition support</div></li><li id="cha.lt26" class="half_rhythm"><div>options for nutrition support (oral, enteral and parenteral)</div></li><li id="cha.lt27" class="half_rhythm"><div>ethical and legal concepts</div></li><li id="cha.lt28" class="half_rhythm"><div>potential risks and benefits</div></li><li id="cha.lt29" class="half_rhythm"><div>when and where to seek expert advice.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.1.2.</dt><dd id="cha.lt30"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should ensure that care provides:
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<ul id="cha.l10"><li id="cha.lt31" class="half_rhythm"><div>food and fluid of adequate quantity and quality in an environment conducive to eating</div></li><li id="cha.lt32" class="half_rhythm"><div>appropriate support, for example, modified eating aids, for people who can potentially chew and swallow but are unable to feed themselves.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.1.3.</dt><dd id="cha.lt33"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should ensure that all people who need nutrition support receive coordinated care from a multidisciplinary team.<sup><a href="#cha.fn2">[2]</a></sup></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.1.4.</dt><dd id="cha.lt34"><p class="no_top_margin">All acute hospital trusts should have a multidisciplinary nutrition support team which may include: doctors (for example gastroenterologists, gastrointestinal surgeons, intensivists or others with a specific interest in nutrition support), dietitians, a specialist nutrition nurse, other nurses, pharmacists, biochemistry and microbiology laboratory support staff, and other allied healthcare professionals (for example, speech and language therapists).</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.1.5.</dt><dd id="cha.lt35"><p class="no_top_margin">All hospital trusts should have a nutrition steering committee working within the clinical governance framework.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.1.6.</dt><dd id="cha.lt36"><p class="no_top_margin">Members of the nutrition steering committee should be drawn from trust management, and include senior representation from medical staff, catering, nursing, dietetics, pharmacy and other healthcare professionals as appropriate, for example, speech and language therapists.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.1.7.</dt><dd id="cha.lt37"><p class="no_top_margin">All acute hospital trusts should employ at least one specialist nutrition support nurse.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.1.8.</dt><dd id="cha.lt38"><p class="no_top_margin">The specialist nutrition support nurse should work alongside nursing staff, as well as dietitians and other experts in nutrition support, to:
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<ul id="cha.l11"><li id="cha.lt39" class="half_rhythm"><div>minimise complications related to enteral tube feeding and parenteral nutrition</div></li><li id="cha.lt40" class="half_rhythm"><div>ensure optimal ward-based training of nurses</div></li><li id="cha.lt41" class="half_rhythm"><div>ensure adherence to nutrition support protocols</div></li><li id="cha.lt42" class="half_rhythm"><div>support coordination of care between the hospital and the community.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.2"><h3>1.2. Screening for malnutrition and the risk of malnutrition in hospital and the community</h3><dl id="cha.l12" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.2.1.</dt><dd id="cha.lt43"><p class="no_top_margin">Screening for malnutrition and the risk of malnutrition should be carried out by healthcare professionals with appropriate skills and training.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.2.2.</dt><dd id="cha.lt44"><p class="no_top_margin">All hospital inpatients on admission and all outpatients at their first clinic appointment should be screened. Screening should be repeated weekly for inpatients and when there is clinical concern for outpatients.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.2.3.</dt><dd id="cha.lt45"><p class="no_top_margin">Hospital departments who identify groups of patients with low risk of malnutrition may opt out of screening these groups. Opt-out decisions should follow an explicit process via the local clinical governance structure involving experts in nutrition support.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.2.4.</dt><dd id="cha.lt46"><p class="no_top_margin">People in care homes should be screened on admission and when there is clinical concern.<sup><a href="#cha.fn3">[3]</a></sup></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.2.5.</dt><dd id="cha.lt47"><p class="no_top_margin">Screening should take place on initial registration at general practice surgeries and when there is clinical concern<sup><a href="#cha.fn3">[3]</a></sup>. Screening should also be considered at other opportunities (for example, health checks, flu injections).</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.2.6.</dt><dd id="cha.lt48"><p class="no_top_margin">Screening should assess body mass index (BMI)<sup><a href="#cha.fn4">[4]</a></sup> and percentage unintentional weight loss and should also consider the time over which nutrient intake has been unintentionally reduced and/or the likelihood of future impaired nutrient intake. The Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool (MUST), for example, may be used to do this.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.3"><h3>1.3. Indications for nutrition support in hospital and the community</h3><dl id="cha.l13" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.3.1.</dt><dd id="cha.lt49"><p class="no_top_margin">Nutrition support should be considered in people who are malnourished, as defined by any of the following:
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<ul id="cha.l14"><li id="cha.lt50" class="half_rhythm"><div>a BMI of less than 18.5 kg/m<sup>2</sup></div></li><li id="cha.lt51" class="half_rhythm"><div>unintentional weight loss greater than 10% within the last 3–6 months</div></li><li id="cha.lt52" class="half_rhythm"><div>a BMI of less than 20 kg/m<sup>2</sup> and unintentional weight loss greater than 5% within the last 3–6 months.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.3.2.</dt><dd id="cha.lt53"><p class="no_top_margin">Nutrition support should be considered in people at risk of malnutrition who, as defined by any of the following:
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<ul id="cha.l15"><li id="cha.lt54" class="half_rhythm"><div>have eaten little or nothing for more than 5 days and/or are likely to eat little or nothing for the next 5 days or longer</div></li><li id="cha.lt55" class="half_rhythm"><div>have a poor absorptive capacity, and/or have high nutrient losses and/or have increased nutritional needs from causes such as catabolism.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.3.3.</dt><dd id="cha.lt56"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should consider using oral, enteral or parenteral nutrition support, alone or in combination, for people who are either malnourished or at risk of malnutrition, as defined in <a href="#cha.lt49">1.3.1</a> and <a href="#cha.lt53">1.3.2</a>. Potential swallowing problems should be taken into account.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.3.4.</dt><dd id="cha.lt57"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals involved in starting or stopping nutrition support should:
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<ul id="cha.l16"><li id="cha.lt58" class="half_rhythm"><div>obtain consent from the patient if he or she is competent</div></li><li id="cha.lt59" class="half_rhythm"><div>act in the patient’s best interest if he or she is not competent to give consent</div></li><li id="cha.lt60" class="half_rhythm"><div>be aware that the provision of nutrition support is not always appropriate. Decisions on withholding or withdrawing of nutrition support require a consideration of both ethical and legal principles (both at common law and statute including the Human Rights Act 1998).</div></li></ul>
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<blockquote><p>When such decisions are being made guidance issued by the General Medical Council<sup><a href="#cha.fn5">[5]</a></sup> and the Department of Health<sup><a href="#cha.fn6">[6]</a></sup> should be followed.</p></blockquote></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.3.5.</dt><dd id="cha.lt61"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should ensure that people having nutrition support, and their carers, are kept fully informed about their treatment. They should also have access to appropriate information and be given the opportunity to discuss diagnosis and treatment options.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.4"><h3>1.4. What to give in hospital and the community</h3><dl id="cha.l17" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.4.1.</dt><dd id="cha.lt62"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals who are skilled and trained in nutritional requirements and methods of nutrition support should ensure that the total nutrient intake<sup><a href="#cha.fn7">[7]</a></sup> of people prescribed nutrition support accounts for:
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<ul id="cha.l18"><li id="cha.lt63" class="half_rhythm"><div>energy, protein, fluid, electrolyte, mineral, micronutrients<sup><a href="#cha.fn8">[8]</a></sup> and fibre needs</div></li><li id="cha.lt64" class="half_rhythm"><div>activity levels and the underlying clinical condition – for example, catabolism, pyrexia</div></li><li id="cha.lt65" class="half_rhythm"><div>gastrointestinal tolerance, potential metabolic instability and risk of refeeding problems</div></li><li id="cha.lt66" class="half_rhythm"><div>the likely duration of nutrition support.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.4.2.</dt><dd id="cha.lt67"><p class="no_top_margin">For people who are not severely ill or injured, nor at risk of refeeding syndrome, the suggested nutritional prescription for total intake<sup><a href="#cha.fn7">[7]</a></sup> should provide all of the following:
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<ul id="cha.l19"><li id="cha.lt68" class="half_rhythm"><div>25–35 kcal/kg/day total energy (including that derived from protein<sup><a href="#cha.fn9">[9]</a></sup><sup>,</sup><sup><a href="#cha.fn10">[10]</a></sup>)</div></li><li id="cha.lt69" class="half_rhythm"><div>0.8–1.5 g protein (0.13–0.24 g nitrogen)/kg/day</div></li><li id="cha.lt70" class="half_rhythm"><div>30–35 ml fluid/kg (with allowance for extra losses from drains and fistulae, for example, and extra input from other sources – for example, intravenous drugs)</div></li><li id="cha.lt71" class="half_rhythm"><div>adequate electrolytes, minerals, micronutrients (allowing for any pre-existing deficits, excessive losses or increased demands) and fibre if appropriate.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.4.3.</dt><dd id="cha.lt72"><p class="no_top_margin">The prescription should be reviewed according to the person’s progress, and care should be taken when:
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<ul id="cha.l20"><li id="cha.lt73" class="half_rhythm"><div>using food fortification which tends to supplement energy and/or protein without adequate micronutrients and minerals</div></li><li id="cha.lt74" class="half_rhythm"><div>using feeds and supplements that meet full energy and nitrogen needs, as they may not provide adequate micronutrients and minerals when only used in a supplementary role</div></li><li id="cha.lt75" class="half_rhythm"><div>using pre-mixed parenteral nutrition bags that have not had tailored additions from pharmacy.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.4.4.</dt><dd id="cha.lt76"><p class="no_top_margin">Nutrition support should be cautiously introduced in seriously ill or injured people requiring enteral tube feeding or parenteral nutrition. It should be started at no more than 50% of the estimated target energy and protein needs. It should be built up to meet full needs over the first 24–48 hours according to metabolic and gastrointestinal tolerance. Full requirements of fluid, electrolytes, vitamins and minerals should be provided from the outset of feeding.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.4.5.</dt><dd id="cha.lt77"><p class="no_top_margin">People who have eaten little or nothing for more than 5 days should have nutrition support introduced at no more than 50% of requirements for the first 2 days, before increasing feed rates to meet full needs if clinical and biochemical monitoring reveals no refeeding problems.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.4.6.</dt><dd id="cha.lt78"><p class="no_top_margin">People who meet the criteria in Box should be considered to be at high risk of developing refeeding problems.</p></dd></dl></dl><div id="cha.box2" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><h3><span class="label">Box 1</span><span class="title">Criteria for determining people at high risk of developing refeeding problems</span></h3><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col table-wrap" id="figchatab1"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Table" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figchatab1" rid-ob="figobchatab1"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=thumb" src-large="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=previmg" alt="Image " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt"><h4 id="cha.tab1"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobchatab1">Table</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin"><i>Patient has one or more of the following:</i>
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BMI less than 16 kg/m<sup>2</sup> unintentional weight loss greater than 15% within the last 3–6 months little or no nutritional intake for more than 10 days low levels of potassium, phosphate or magnesium prior <a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobchatab1">(more...)</a></p></div></div></div><dl id="cha.l23" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.4.7.</dt><dd id="cha.lt87"><p class="no_top_margin">People at high risk of developing refeeding problems (<a href="/books/NBK553310/box/cha.box2/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobchabox2">Box 1</a>) should be cared for by healthcare professionals who are appropriately skilled and trained and have expert knowledge of nutritional requirements and nutrition support.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.4.8.</dt><dd id="cha.lt88"><p class="no_top_margin">The prescription for people at high risk of developing refeeding problems should consider:
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<ul id="cha.l24"><li id="cha.lt89" class="half_rhythm"><div>starting nutrition support at a maximum of 10 kcal/kg/day, increasing levels slowly to meet or exceed full needs by 4–7 days</div></li><li id="cha.lt90" class="half_rhythm"><div>using only 5 kcal/kg/day in extreme cases (for example, BMI less than 14 kg/m<sup>2</sup> or negligible intake for more than 15 days) and monitoring cardiac rhythm continually in these people and any others who already have or develop any cardiac arrythmias</div></li><li id="cha.lt91" class="half_rhythm"><div>restoring circulatory volume and monitoring fluid balance and overall clinical status closely</div></li><li id="cha.lt92" class="half_rhythm"><div>providing immediately before and during the first 10 days of feeding: oral thiamin 200–300 mg daily, vitamin B co strong 1 or 2 tablets, three times a day (or full dose daily intravenous vitamin B preparation, if necessary) and a balanced multivitamin/trace element supplement once daily</div></li><li id="cha.lt93" class="half_rhythm"><div>providing oral, enteral or intravenous supplements of potassium (likely requirement 2–4 mmol/kg/day), phosphate (likely requirement 0.3–0.6 mmol/kg/day) and magnesium (likely requirement 0.2 mmol/kg/day intravenous, 0.4 mmol/kg/day oral) unless pre-feeding plasma levels are high. Pre-feeding correction of low plasma levels is unnecessary.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.5"><h3>1.5. Monitoring of nutrition support in hospital and the community</h3><dl id="cha.l25" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.5.1.</dt><dd id="cha.lt94"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should review the indications, route, risks, benefits and goals of nutrition support at regular intervals. The time between reviews depends on the patient, care setting and duration of nutrition support. Intervals may increase as the patient is stabilised on nutrition support.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.5.2.</dt><dd id="cha.lt95"><p class="no_top_margin">People having nutrition support in hospital should be monitored by healthcare professionals with the relevant skills and training in nutritional monitoring.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.5.3.</dt><dd id="cha.lt96"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should refer to the protocols for nutritional, anthropometric and clinical monitoring, shown in <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab2/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figchatab2" rid-ob="figobchatab2">Table 1</a>, when monitoring people having nutrition support in hospital.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.5.4.</dt><dd id="cha.lt97"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should refer to the protocols for laboratory monitoring, shown in <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab3/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figchatab3" rid-ob="figobchatab3">Table 2</a>, when monitoring people having nutrition support in hospital. <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab3/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figchatab3" rid-ob="figobchatab3">Table 2</a> is particularly relevant to parenteral nutrition. It could also be selectively applied when enteral or oral nutrition support is used, particularly for people who are metabolically unstable or at risk of refeeding syndrome. The frequency and extent of the observations given may need to be adapted in acutely ill or metabolically unstable people.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.5.5.</dt><dd id="cha.lt98"><p class="no_top_margin">People having parenteral nutrition in the community need regular assessment and monitoring. This should be carried out by home care specialists and by experienced hospital teams (initially at least weekly), using observations marked * in <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab2/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figchatab2" rid-ob="figobchatab2">Table 1</a>. In addition, they should be reviewed at a specialist hospital clinic every 3–6 months. Monitoring should be more frequent during the early months of home parenteral nutrition, or if there is a change in clinical condition, when the full range of tests in <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab2/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figchatab2" rid-ob="figobchatab2">Tables 1</a> and <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab3/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figchatab3" rid-ob="figobchatab3">2</a> should be performed. Some of the clinical observations may be checked by patients or carers.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.5.6.</dt><dd id="cha.lt99"><p class="no_top_margin">People having oral nutrition support and/or enteral tube feeding in the community should be monitored by healthcare professionals with the relevant skills and training in nutritional monitoring. This group of people should be monitored every 3–6 months or more frequently if there is any change in their clinical condition. A limited number of observations and tests from <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab2/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figchatab2" rid-ob="figobchatab2">Table 1</a> should be performed. Some of the clinical observations may be checked by patients or carers. If clinical progress is satisfactory, laboratory tests are rarely needed.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.5.7.</dt><dd id="cha.lt100"><p class="no_top_margin">If long-term nutrition support is needed patients and carers should be trained to recognise and respond to adverse changes in both their well-being and in the management of their nutritional delivery system.</p></dd></dl></dl><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col table-wrap" id="figchatab2"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab2/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Table 1" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figchatab2" rid-ob="figobchatab2"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab2/?report=thumb" src-large="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab2/?report=previmg" alt="Table 1. Protocol for nutritional, anthropometric and clinical monitoring of nutrition support." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt"><h4 id="cha.tab2"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab2/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobchatab2">Table 1</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Protocol for nutritional, anthropometric and clinical monitoring of nutrition support. </p></div></div><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col table-wrap" id="figchatab3"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab3/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Table 2" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figchatab3" rid-ob="figobchatab3"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab3/?report=thumb" src-large="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab3/?report=previmg" alt="Table 2. Protocol for laboratory monitoring of nutrition support." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt"><h4 id="cha.tab3"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab3/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobchatab3">Table 2</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Protocol for laboratory monitoring of nutrition support. </p></div></div></div><div id="cha.s6.6"><h3>1.6. Oral nutrition support in hospital and the community</h3><div id="cha.s6.6.1"><h4>People with dysphagia</h4><dl id="cha.l26" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.1.</dt><dd id="cha.lt101"><p class="no_top_margin">People who present with any obvious or less obvious indicators of dysphagia listed in Box should be referred to healthcare professionals with relevant skills and training in the diagnosis, assessment and management of swallowing disorders.</p></dd></dl></dl><div id="cha.box3" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><h3><span class="label">Box 2</span><span class="title">Indicators of dysphagia</span></h3><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col table-wrap" id="figchatab4"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab4/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Table" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figchatab4" rid-ob="figobchatab4"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab4/?report=thumb" src-large="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab4/?report=previmg" alt="Image " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt"><h4 id="cha.tab4"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab4/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobchatab4">Table</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Difficult, painful chewing or swallowing Regurgitation of undigested food</p></div></div></div><dl id="cha.l27" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.2.</dt><dd id="cha.lt102"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should recognise that people with acute and chronic neurological conditions and those who have undergone surgery or radiotherapy to the upper aero-digestive tract are at high risk of developing dysphagia.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.3.</dt><dd id="cha.lt103"><p class="no_top_margin">When managing people with dysphagia, healthcare professionals with relevant skills and training in the diagnosis, assessment and management of swallowing disorders should consider:
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<ul id="cha.l28"><li id="cha.lt104" class="half_rhythm"><div>the risks and benefits of modified oral nutrition support and/or enteral tube feeding</div></li><li id="cha.lt105" class="half_rhythm"><div>the factors listed in Box.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl></dl><div id="cha.box4" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><h3><span class="label">Box 3</span><span class="title">Factors to be considered before modification of nutrition support and hydration in people with dysphagia</span></h3><p>Recurrent chest infections</p><p>Mobility</p><p>Dependency on others for assistance to eat</p><p>Perceived palatability and appearance of food or drink</p><p>Level of alertness</p><p>Compromised physiology</p><p>Poor oral hygiene</p><p>Compromised medical status</p><p>Metabolic and nutritional requirements</p><p>Vulnerability (for example, immunocompromised)</p><p>Comorbidities</p></div><dl id="cha.l29" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.4.</dt><dd id="cha.lt106"><p class="no_top_margin">People with dysphagia should have a drug review to ascertain if the current drug formulation, route and timing of administration remains appropriate and is without contraindications for the feeding regimen or swallowing process.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.5.</dt><dd id="cha.lt107"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals with relevant skills and training in the diagnosis, assessment and management of swallowing disorders should regularly monitor and reassess people with dysphagia who are having modified food and liquid until they are stable.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.6.2"><h4>Indications</h4><dl id="cha.l30" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.6.</dt><dd id="cha.lt108"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should consider oral nutrition support to improve nutritional intake for people who can swallow safely and are malnourished or at risk of malnutrition as defined in <a href="#cha.lt49">1.3.1</a> and <a href="#cha.lt53">1.3.2</a>, respectively.<sup><a href="#cha.fn11">[11]</a></sup></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.7.</dt><dd id="cha.lt109"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should ensure that the overall nutrient intake of oral nutrition support offered contains a balanced mixture of protein, energy, fibre, electrolytes, vitamins and minerals.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.8.</dt><dd id="cha.lt110"><p class="no_top_margin">If there is concern about the adequacy of micronutrient intake, a complete oral multivitamin and mineral supplement providing the reference nutrient intake for all vitamins and trace elements should be considered by healthcare professionals with the relevant skills and training in nutrition support who are able to determine the nutritional adequacy of a patient’s dietary intake.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.9.</dt><dd id="cha.lt111"><p class="no_top_margin">Oral nutrition support should be stopped when the patient is established on adequate oral intake from normal food.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.6.3"><h4>Surgical patients</h4><dl id="cha.l31" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.10.</dt><dd id="cha.lt112"><p class="no_top_margin">Peri-operative oral nutrition support should be considered for surgical patients who can swallow safely and are malnourished as defined in <a href="#cha.lt49">1.3.1</a>.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.11.</dt><dd id="cha.lt113"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should consider giving post-caesarean or gynaecological surgical patients who can swallow safely, some oral intake within 24 hours of surgery.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.6.12.</dt><dd id="cha.lt114"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should consider giving post-abdominal surgery patients who can swallow safely, and in whom there are no specific concerns about gut function or integrity, some oral intake within 24 hours of surgery. The patient should be monitored carefully for any signs of nausea or vomiting.</p></dd></dl></dl></div></div><div id="cha.s6.7"><h3>1.7. Enteral tube feeding in hospital and the community</h3><p>In this guideline, enteral tube feeding refers to the delivery of a nutritionally complete feed (as specified in <a href="#cha.s6.4">section 1.4</a>) via a tube into the stomach, duodenum or jejunum.</p><div id="cha.s6.7.1"><h4>Indications</h4><dl id="cha.l32" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.1.</dt><dd id="cha.lt115"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should consider enteral tube feeding in people who are malnourished or at risk of malnutrition as defined in <a href="#cha.lt49">1.3.1</a> and <a href="#cha.lt53">1.3.2</a>, respectively, and have:
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<ul id="cha.l33"><li id="cha.lt116" class="half_rhythm"><div>inadequate or unsafe oral intake, and</div></li><li id="cha.lt117" class="half_rhythm"><div>a functional, accessible gastrointestinal tract.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.2.</dt><dd id="cha.lt118"><p class="no_top_margin">Enteral tube feeding should not be given to people unless they meet the criteria in <a href="#cha.lt115">1.7.1</a>, or they are taking part in a clinical trial.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.3.</dt><dd id="cha.lt119"><p class="no_top_margin">Enteral tube feeding should be stopped when the patient is established on adequate oral intake.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.7.2"><h4>Surgical patients</h4><dl id="cha.l34" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.4.</dt><dd id="cha.lt120"><p class="no_top_margin">Surgical patients who are: malnourished, as defined in <a href="#cha.lt49">1.3.1</a>, and meet the criteria in <a href="#cha.lt115">1.7.1</a>, and are due to undergo major abdominal procedures, should be considered for pre-operative enteral tube feeding.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.5.</dt><dd id="cha.lt121"><p class="no_top_margin">General surgical patients should not have enteral tube feeding within 48 hours post-surgery unless they meet the criteria in <a href="#cha.lt115">1.7.1</a>.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.7.3"><h4>Route of access</h4><dl id="cha.l35" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.6.</dt><dd id="cha.lt122"><p class="no_top_margin">People in general medical, surgical and intensive care wards who meet the criteria in <a href="#cha.lt115">1.7.1</a> should be fed via a tube into the stomach unless there is upper gastrointestinal dysfunction.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.7.</dt><dd id="cha.lt123"><p class="no_top_margin">People who meet the criteria in <a href="#cha.lt115">1.7.1</a>, with upper gastrointestinal dysfunction (or an inaccessible upper gastrointestinal tract) should be considered for post-pyloric (duodenal or jejunal) feeding.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.8.</dt><dd id="cha.lt124"><p class="no_top_margin">Gastrostomy feeding should be considered in people likely to need long-term (4 weeks or more) enteral tube feeding.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.9.</dt><dd id="cha.lt125"><p class="no_top_margin">Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tubes which have been placed without apparent complications can be used for enteral tube feeding 4 hours after insertion.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.7.4"><h4>People with dysphagia</h4><dl id="cha.l36" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.10.</dt><dd id="cha.lt126"><p class="no_top_margin">In the acute setting, for example following stroke, people unable to swallow safely or take sufficient energy and nutrients orally should have an initial 2–4 week trial of nasogastric enteral tube feeding. Healthcare professionals with relevant skills and training in the diagnosis, assessment and management of swallowing disorders should assess the prognosis and options for future nutrition support.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.7.5"><h4>Mode of delivery</h4><dl id="cha.l37" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.11.</dt><dd id="cha.lt127"><p class="no_top_margin">For people being fed into the stomach, bolus or continuous methods should be considered, taking into account patient preference, convenience and drug administration.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.12.</dt><dd id="cha.lt128"><p class="no_top_margin">For people in intensive care, nasogastric tube feeding should usually be delivered continuously over 16–24 hours daily. If insulin administration is needed it is safe and more practical to administer feeding continuously over 24 hours.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.7.6"><h4>Motility agents</h4><dl id="cha.l38" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.13.</dt><dd id="cha.lt129"><p class="no_top_margin">For people in intensive care with delayed gastric emptying who are not tolerating enteral tube feeding, a motility agent should be considered, unless there is a pharmacological cause that can be rectified or suspicion of gastrointestinal obstruction.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.14.</dt><dd id="cha.lt130"><p class="no_top_margin">People in other acute care settings who have delayed gastric emptying and are not tolerating enteral tube feeding should also be offered a motility agent unless there is a pharmacological cause that can be rectified or suspicion of gastrointestinal obstruction.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.15.</dt><dd id="cha.lt131"><p class="no_top_margin">If delayed gastric emptying is severely limiting feeding into the stomach, despite the use of motility agents, post-pyloric enteral tube feeding and/or parenteral nutrition should be considered.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.7.7"><h4>Management of tubes</h4><dl id="cha.l39" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.16.</dt><dd id="cha.lt132"><p class="no_top_margin">People requiring enteral tube feeding should have their tube inserted by healthcare professionals with the relevant skills and training.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.17.</dt><dd id="cha.lt133"><p class="no_top_margin">The position of all nasogastric tubes should be confirmed after placement and before each use by aspiration and pH graded paper (with X-ray if necessary) as per the advice from the National Patient Safety Agency (<a href="http://www.nrls.npsa.nhs.uk/alerts/?entryid45=129640" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">NPSA, 2011</a>: further patient safety alerts for nasogastric tubes have also been issued in <a href="https://improvement.nhs.uk/news-alerts/patient-safety-alert-placement-devices-nasogastric-tube-insertion/" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">2013</a> and <a href="https://improvement.nhs.uk/news-alerts/nasogastric-tube-misplacement-continuing-risk-of-death-severe-harm/" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">2016</a>). Local protocols should address the clinical criteria that permit enteral tube feeding. These criteria include how to proceed when the ability to make repeat checks of the tube position is limited by the inability to aspirate the tube, or the checking of pH is invalid because of gastric acid suppression.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.7.18.</dt><dd id="cha.lt134"><p class="no_top_margin">The initial placement of post-pyloric tubes should be confirmed with an abdominal X-ray (unless placed radiologically). Agreed protocols setting out the necessary clinical checks need to be in place before this procedure is carried out.</p></dd></dl></dl></div></div><div id="cha.s6.8"><h3>1.8. Parenteral nutrition in hospital and the community</h3><div id="cha.s6.8.1"><h4>Indications</h4><dl id="cha.l40" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.1.</dt><dd id="cha.lt135"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should consider parenteral nutrition in people who are malnourished or at risk of malnutrition as defined in <a href="#cha.lt49">1.3.1</a> and <a href="#cha.lt53">1.3.2</a>, respectively, and meet either of the following criteria:
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<ul id="cha.l41"><li id="cha.lt136" class="half_rhythm"><div>inadequate or unsafe oral and/or enteral nutritional intake</div></li><li id="cha.lt137" class="half_rhythm"><div>a non-functional, inaccessible or perforated (leaking) gastrointestinal tract.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.8.2"><h4>Prescription</h4><dl id="cha.l42" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.2.</dt><dd id="cha.lt138"><p class="no_top_margin">Parenteral nutrition should be introduced progressively and closely monitored, usually starting at no more than 50% of estimated needs for the first 24–48 hours. Parenteral nutrition can be withdrawn once adequate oral or enteral nutrition is tolerated and nutritional status is stable. Withdrawal should be planned and stepwise with a daily review of the patient’s progress.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.3.</dt><dd id="cha.lt139"><p class="no_top_margin">Patients who need parenteral nutrition should have their nutritional requirements determined by healthcare professionals with the relevant skills and training in the prescription of nutrition support. Before using most parenteral nutrition products, micronutrients and trace elements should be added and additional electrolytes and other nutrients may also be needed. Additions should be made under appropriate pharmaceutically controlled environmental conditions before administration.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.4.</dt><dd id="cha.lt140"><p class="no_top_margin">Parenteral nutrition should be stopped when the patient is established on adequate oral and/or enteral support. There is no minimum length of time for the duration of parenteral nutrition.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.8.3"><h4>Surgical patients</h4><dl id="cha.l43" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.5.</dt><dd id="cha.lt141"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should consider supplementary peri-operative parenteral nutrition in malnourished surgical patients who meet the criteria in <a href="#cha.lt135">1.8.1</a>.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.6.</dt><dd id="cha.lt142"><p class="no_top_margin">Peri-operative supplementary parenteral nutrition should not be given to surgical patients unless they meet the criteria set out in <a href="#cha.lt135">1.8.1</a>.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.7.</dt><dd id="cha.lt143"><p class="no_top_margin">If intestinal tolerance persistently limits enteral tube feeding in surgical or critical care patients, parenteral nutrition should be used to supplement or replace enteral tube feeding.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.8.4"><h4>Route of access</h4><dl id="cha.l44" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.8.</dt><dd id="cha.lt144"><p class="no_top_margin">In hospital, parenteral nutrition can be given via a dedicated peripherally inserted central catheter as an alternative to a dedicated centrally placed central venous catheter. A free dedicated lumen in a multi-lumen centrally placed catheter may also be used.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.9.</dt><dd id="cha.lt145"><p class="no_top_margin">Administration of parenteral nutrition via a peripheral venous catheter should be considered for patients who are likely to need short-term parenteral nutrition (less than 14 days) who have no need for central access for other reasons. Care should be taken in catheter choice, and in attention to pH, tonicity and long-term compatibility of the parenteral nutrition formulations in order to avoid administration or stability problems.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.10.</dt><dd id="cha.lt146"><p class="no_top_margin">Tunnelling subclavian lines is recommended for long-term use (more than 30 days).</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.11.</dt><dd id="cha.lt147"><p class="no_top_margin">Catheters do not have to be tunnelled for short-term use (less than 30 days).</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.8.5"><h4>Mode of delivery</h4><dl id="cha.l45" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.12.</dt><dd id="cha.lt148"><p class="no_top_margin">Continuous administration of parenteral nutrition should be offered as the preferred method of infusion in severely ill people who require parenteral nutrition.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.13.</dt><dd id="cha.lt149"><p class="no_top_margin">Cyclical delivery of parenteral nutrition should be considered when using peripheral venous cannulae with planned routine catheter change.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.14.</dt><dd id="cha.lt150"><p class="no_top_margin">A gradual change from continuous to cyclical delivery should be considered in patients requiring parenteral nutrition for more than 2 weeks.</p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.8.6"><h4>Management of catheters</h4><dl id="cha.l46" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.8.15.</dt><dd id="cha.lt151"><p class="no_top_margin">Only healthcare professionals competent in catheter placement should be responsible for the placement of catheters and they should be aware of the importance of monitoring and managing these safely.<sup><a href="#cha.fn12">[12]</a></sup></p></dd></dl></dl></div></div><div id="cha.s6.9"><h3>1.9. Supporting patients in the community</h3><dl id="cha.l47" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.9.1.</dt><dd id="cha.lt152"><p class="no_top_margin">Healthcare professionals should ensure that patients having enteral or parenteral nutrition in the community and their carers:
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<ul id="cha.l48"><li id="cha.lt153" class="half_rhythm"><div>are kept fully informed and have access to appropriate sources of information in formats, languages and ways that are suited to an individual’s requirements. Consideration should be given to cognition, gender, physical needs, culture and stage of life of the individual</div></li><li id="cha.lt154" class="half_rhythm"><div>have the opportunity to discuss diagnosis, treatment options and relevant physical, psychological and social issues</div></li><li id="cha.lt155" class="half_rhythm"><div>are given contact details for relevant support groups, charities and voluntary organisations.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl></dl><div id="cha.s6.9.1"><h4>Enteral tube feeding</h4><dl id="cha.l49" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.9.2.</dt><dd id="cha.lt156"><p class="no_top_margin">All people in the community having enteral tube feeding should be supported by a coordinated multidisciplinary team, which includes dietitians, district, care home or homecare company nurses, GPs, community pharmacists and other allied healthcare professionals (for example, speech and language therapists) as appropriate. Close liaison between the multidisciplinary team and patients and carers regarding diagnoses, prescription, arrangements and potential problems is essential.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.9.3.</dt><dd id="cha.lt157"><p class="no_top_margin">Patients in the community having enteral tube feeding and their carers should receive an individualised care plan which includes overall aims and a monitoring plan.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.9.4.</dt><dd id="cha.lt158"><p class="no_top_margin">Patients in the community having enteral tube feeding and their carers, should receive training and information from members of the multidisciplinary team on:
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<ul id="cha.l50"><li id="cha.lt159" class="half_rhythm"><div>the management of the tubes, delivery systems and the regimen, outlining all procedures related to setting up feeds, using feed pumps, the likely risks and methods for troubleshooting common problems and be provided with an instruction manual (and visual aids if appropriate)</div></li><li id="cha.lt160" class="half_rhythm"><div>both routine and emergency telephone numbers to contact a healthcare professional who understands the needs and potential problems of people on home enteral tube feeding</div></li><li id="cha.lt161" class="half_rhythm"><div>the delivery of equipment, ancillaries and feed with appropriate contact details for any homecare company involved.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl></dl></div><div id="cha.s6.9.2"><h4>Parenteral nutrition</h4><dl id="cha.l51" class="temp-labeled-list"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.9.5.</dt><dd id="cha.lt162"><p class="no_top_margin">All people in the community having parenteral nutrition should be supported by a co-ordinated multidisciplinary team, which includes input from specialist nutrition nurses, dietitians, GPs, pharmacists and district and/or homecare company nurses. Close liaison between the multidisciplinary team and patients and carers regarding diagnoses, prescription, arrangements and potential problems is essential.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.9.6.</dt><dd id="cha.lt163"><p class="no_top_margin">People in the community having parenteral nutrition and their carers should receive an individualised care plan which includes overall aims and a monitoring plan.</p></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>1.9.7.</dt><dd id="cha.lt164"><p class="no_top_margin">People in the community having parenteral nutrition and their carers should receive training and information from members of the multidisciplinary team on:
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<ul id="cha.l52"><li id="cha.lt165" class="half_rhythm"><div>the management of the delivery systems and the regimen, outlining all procedures related to setting up feeds, using feed pumps, the likely risks and methods for troubleshooting common problems and be provided with an instruction manual (and visual aids if appropriate)</div></li><li id="cha.lt166" class="half_rhythm"><div>routine and emergency telephone numbers to contact a healthcare professional with the relevant competencies (specialist nutrition nurse, pharmacist)</div></li><li id="cha.lt167" class="half_rhythm"><div>the arrangements for the delivery of equipment, ancillaries and feed with appropriate contact details for any homecare company involved.</div></li></ul></p></dd></dl></dl></div></div><div id="cha.s6.10"><h3>More information</h3><div id="cha.box5" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><p>You can also see this guideline in the NICE pathways on <a href="https://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/nutrition-support-in-adults" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">nutrition support in adults</a> and <a href="https://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/stroke" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">stroke</a>.</p><p>To find out what NICE has said on topics related to this guideline, see our web page on <a href="https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/conditions-and-diseases/diabetes-and-other-endocrinal--nutritional-and-metabolic-conditions/endocrinal--nutritional-and-metabolic-conditions--general-and-other" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">endocrinal, nutritional and metabolic conditions: general and other</a>.</p><p>See also the guideline committee’s discussion and the evidence reviews (in the <a href="http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG32/evidence" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">full guideline</a>), and information about <a href="http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG32/documents" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">how the guideline was developed</a>, including details of the committee.</p></div></div></div><div id="cha.s7"><h2 id="_cha_s7_">2. Research recommendations</h2><p>The Guideline Development Group has made the following recommendations for research, on the basis of its review of the evidence. The Group regards these recommendations as the most important research areas to improve NICE guidance and patient care in the future. The Guideline Development Group’s full set of research recommendations is detailed in the full guideline (see <a href="http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg32/chapter/other-versions-of-this-guideline" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">section 5</a>).</p><div id="cha.s7.1"><h3>2.1. Research question</h3><p>Further research is needed to ascertain whether an educational intervention (for example, three 1-week modular courses, over 6 months) for all healthcare professionals, in particular medical and nursing staff including those who work with people with dementia, would have an affect on patient care (that is, affect on nutritional status, length of hospital stay, frequency of GP visits, complications and quality of life) compared with no formal education?</p><div id="cha.s7.1.1"><h4>Why this is important</h4><p>It is known that healthcare professionals in both the hospital and community setting have a poor knowledge of nutrition. This is partly due to receiving a minimal amount of education in nutrition during their undergraduate or basic training. It is therefore essential to determine whether an organised nutrition support education programme to healthcare professionals would improve the choice made about nutrition support and the consequent care of patients prescribed nutrition support.</p></div></div><div id="cha.s7.2"><h3>2.2. Research question</h3><p>What are the benefits to patients of a nutritional screening programme (using a simple tool such as the ‘Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool’ [MUST]) compared with not screening people in: a) primary care (attending GP clinics): b) care homes; c) hospital inpatients; d) hospital outpatients; e) patients with dementia in terms of determining the number of people at risk of malnutrition, complications, survival, hospital admission rates, length of stay, quality of life and cost effectiveness?</p><div id="cha.s7.2.1"><h4>Why this is important</h4><p>There is no clear evidence available as to whether screening is really beneficial or how it should be carried out. With the lack of evidence the GDG have considered in detail this problem and have instead carefully developed consensus statements to support recommendations for screening. As a priority it is important that we determine the need for screening and intervention – in particular, primary care and the wider community.</p></div></div><div id="cha.s7.3"><h3>2.3. Research question</h3><p>Further research is needed to identify which components of nutrition monitoring are clinically and cost effective.</p><div id="cha.s7.3.1"><h4>Why this is important</h4><p>There is no clear evidence available regarding the long- and short-term benefits of clinical monitoring in terms of prevention of complications and survival. With the lack of evidence the GDG have considered in detail this problem and have instead carefully developed the guidance for monitoring by expert clinical practice and consensus opinion.</p></div></div><div id="cha.s7.4"><h3>2.4. Research question</h3><p>What are the benefits of patients (in hospital or the community, including older people) identified as at high risk of malnutrition by a screening tool such as MUST being offered either oral nutritional supplements compared with: a) dietary modification and/or food fortification; or b) dietary modification and/or food fortification together with dietary counselling, in terms of determining complications, survival, length of hospital stay, quality of life and cost effectiveness?</p><div id="cha.s7.4.1"><h4>Why this is important</h4><p>This is an essential recommendation for research since there is insufficient evidence on the benefits of intervention used for oral nutrition support – in particular, the benefits of often first line treatment, for example food fortification and/or dietary counselling. It is essential to know this so that the indications on how to treat can be further supported.</p></div></div><div id="cha.s7.5"><h3>2.5. Research question</h3><p>What are the benefits of enteral tube feeding to patients compared with no enteral tube feeding in people with dysphagia and early to mid-stage dementia in terms of reduced complications associated with swallowing, improved nutritional status, delayed onset of advanced stage dementia, hospital admissions, cost effectiveness and survival?</p><div id="cha.s7.5.1"><h4>Why this is important</h4><p>Much of the research tends to focus or concentrate on tube feeding people with advanced dementia or those who may be in terminal stages of the disease. Depending on the type of dementia, swallowing disorders may occur at an earlier stage in the disease, for example vascular dementia. The benefits and complications of tube feeding may be quite different in people in the earlier stages than those who are in the advanced stage of dementia.</p></div></div></div><div id="cha.s8"><h2 id="_cha_s8_">Update information</h2><p><b>July 2017:</b> Links were updated in the footnotes to <a href="#cha.lt57">recommendations 1.3.4</a> and <a href="#cha.lt151">1.8.15</a>. <a href="#cha.lt133">Recommendation 1.7.17</a> was updated and links added to National Patient Safety Agency documents.</p></div><div><h2 id="NBK553310_footnotes">Footnotes</h2><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[1]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn1"><p class="no_top_margin">The composition of this team may differ according to setting and local arrangements.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[2]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn2"><p class="no_top_margin">The composition of this team may differ according to setting and local arrangements.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[3]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn3"><p class="no_top_margin">Clinical concern includes, for example, unintentional weight loss, fragile skin, poor wound healing, apathy, wasted muscles, poor appetite, altered taste sensation, impaired swallowing, altered bowel habit, loose fitting clothes or prolonged intercurrent illness.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[4]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn4"><p class="no_top_margin">BMI is weight (kg)/height (m<sup>2</sup>) (weight in kilograms divided by height in metres squared).</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[5]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn5"><p class="no_top_margin"><a href="http://www.gmc-uk.org/guidance/ethical_guidance/end_of_life_care.asp" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Treatment and care towards the end of life: decision making</a>. General Medical Council.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[6]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn6"><p class="no_top_margin"><a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/reference-guide-to-consent-for-examination-or-treatment-second-edition" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">Reference guide to consent for examination or treatment, 2<sup>nd</sup> edition</a> (2009). Department of Health.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[7]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn7"><p class="no_top_margin">Total intake includes intake from any food, oral fluid, oral nutritional supplements, enteral and/or parenteral nutrition support and intravenous fluid.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[8]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn8"><p class="no_top_margin">The term ‘micronutrient’ is used throughout to include all essential vitamins and trace elements.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[9]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn9"><p class="no_top_margin">This level may need to be lower in people who are overweight, BMI >25.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[10]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn10"><p class="no_top_margin">When using parenteral nutrition it is often necessary to adjust total energy values listed on the manufacturer’s information which may not include protein energy values.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[11]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn11"><p class="no_top_margin">Oral nutrition support includes any of the following methods to improve nutritional intake: fortified food with protein, carbohydrate and/or fat, plus minerals and vitamins; snacks; oral nutritional supplements; altered meal patterns; the provision of dietary advice.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>[12]</dt><dd><div id="cha.fn12"><p class="no_top_margin">See the NICE guideline on <a href="http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg139" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">healthcare-associated infections: prevention and control in primary and community care</a>.</p></div></dd></dl></dl></div></div><div class="fm-sec"><div><p><b>Your responsibility</b>: The recommendations in this guideline represent the view of NICE, arrived at after careful consideration of the evidence available. When exercising their judgement, professionals and practitioners are expected to take this guideline fully into account, alongside the individual needs, preferences and values of their patients or the people using their service. It is not mandatory to apply the recommendations, and the guideline does not override the responsibility to make decisions appropriate to the circumstances of the individual, in consultation with them and their families and carers or guardian.</p><p>Local commissioners and providers of healthcare have a responsibility to enable the guideline to be applied when individual professionals and people using services wish to use it. They should do so in the context of local and national priorities for funding and developing services, and in light of their duties to have due regard to the need to eliminate unlawful discrimination, to advance equality of opportunity and to reduce health inequalities. Nothing in this guideline should be interpreted in a way that would be inconsistent with complying with those duties.</p><p>Commissioners and providers have a responsibility to promote an environmentally sustainable health and care system and should <a href="https://www.nice.org.uk/about/who-we-are/sustainability" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">assess and reduce the environmental impact of implementing NICE recommendations</a> wherever possible.</p></div><p class="small">Created: February 22, 2006; Last Update: August 2017.</p><div class="half_rhythm"><a href="/books/about/copyright/">Copyright</a> © NICE 2019.</div><div class="small"><span class="label">Bookshelf ID: NBK553310</span><span class="label">PMID: <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31999417" title="PubMed record of this title" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=entrez&targetcat=link&targettype=pubmed">31999417</a></span></div></div><div class="small-screen-prev"></div><div class="small-screen-next"></div></article><article data-type="boxed-text" id="figobchabox1"><div id="cha.box1" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><p>This guideline is the basis of QS24.</p></div></article><article data-type="boxed-text" id="figobchabox2"><div id="cha.box2" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><h3><span class="label">Box 1</span><span class="title">Criteria for determining people at high risk of developing refeeding problems</span></h3><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col table-wrap" id="figchatab1"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Table" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figchatab1" rid-ob="figobchatab1"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=thumb" src-large="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=previmg" alt="Image " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt"><h4 id="cha.tab1"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobchatab1">Table</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin"><i>Patient has one or more of the following:</i>
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BMI less than 16 kg/m<sup>2</sup> unintentional weight loss greater than 15% within the last 3–6 months little or no nutritional intake for more than 10 days low levels of potassium, phosphate or magnesium prior <a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobchatab1">(more...)</a></p></div></div></div></article><article data-type="table-wrap" id="figobchatab1"><div id="cha.tab1" class="table"><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab1/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__cha.tab1_lrgtbl__"><table><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p><b>Patient has one or more of the following:</b>
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<ul id="cha.l21"><li id="cha.lt79" class="half_rhythm"><div>BMI less than 16 kg/m<sup>2</sup></div></li><li id="cha.lt80" class="half_rhythm"><div>unintentional weight loss greater than 15% within the last 3–6 months</div></li><li id="cha.lt81" class="half_rhythm"><div>little or no nutritional intake for more than 10 days</div></li><li id="cha.lt82" class="half_rhythm"><div>low levels of potassium, phosphate or magnesium prior to feeding.</div></li></ul></p>
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</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p><b>Or patient has two or more of the following:</b>
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<ul id="cha.l22"><li id="cha.lt83" class="half_rhythm"><div>BMI less than 18.5 kg/m<sup>2</sup></div></li><li id="cha.lt84" class="half_rhythm"><div>unintentional weight loss greater than 10% within the last 3–6 months</div></li><li id="cha.lt85" class="half_rhythm"><div>little or no nutritional intake for more than 5 days</div></li><li id="cha.lt86" class="half_rhythm"><div>a history of alcohol abuse or drugs including insulin, chemotherapy, antacids or diuretics.</div></li></ul></p>
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</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></article><article data-type="table-wrap" id="figobchatab2"><div id="cha.tab2" class="table"><h3><span class="label">Table 1</span><span class="title">Protocol for nutritional, anthropometric and clinical monitoring of nutrition support</span></h3><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab2/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__cha.tab2_lrgtbl__"><table class="no_bottom_margin"><thead><tr><th id="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Parameter</th><th id="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Frequency</th><th id="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Rationale</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3" id="hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Nutritional</th></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Nutrient intake from oral, enteral or parenteral nutrition (including any change in conditions that are affecting food intake)</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, reducing to twice weekly when stable</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure that patient is receiving nutrients to meet requirements and that current method of feeding is still the most appropriate. To allow alteration of intake as indicated</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Actual volume of feed delivered<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, reducing to twice weekly when stable</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure that patient is receiving correct volume of feed. To allow troubleshooting</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Fluid balance charts (enteral and parenteral)</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, reducing to twice weekly when stable</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure patient is not becoming over/under hydrated</td></tr><tr><th headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3" id="hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Anthropometric</th></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Weight<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily if concerns regarding fluid balance, otherwise weekly reducing to monthly</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" rowspan="4" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To assess ongoing nutritional status, determine whether nutritional goals are being achieved and take into account both body fat and muscle</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">BMI<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Start of feeding and then monthly</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Mid-arm circumference<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Monthly, if weight cannot be obtained or is difficult to interpret</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Triceps skinfold thickness</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_5_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Monthly, if weight cannot be obtained or is difficult to interpret</td></tr><tr><th headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3" id="hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">GI function</th></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Nausea/vomiting<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, reducing to twice weekly</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure tolerance of feed</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Diarrhoea<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, reducing to twice weekly</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To rule out any other causes of diarrhoea and then assess tolerance of feeds</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Constipation<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, reducing to twice weekly</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To rule out other causes of constipation and then assess tolerance of feeds</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Abdominal distension</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">As necessary</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_10_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Assess tolerance of feed</td></tr><tr><th headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3" id="hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Enteral tube – nasally inserted</th></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Gastric tube position (pH less than or equal to 5.5 using pH paper – or noting position of markers on tube once initial position has been confirmed)</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Before each feed begins</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure tube in correct position</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Nasal erosion</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure tolerance of tube</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Fixation (is it secure?)</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To help prevent tube becoming dislodged</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Is tube in working order (all pieces intact, tube not blocked/kinked)?</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_15_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure tube is in working order</td></tr><tr><th headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3" id="hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Gastrostomy or jejunostomy</th></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Stoma site</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure site not infected/red, no signs of gastric leakage</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Tube position (length at external fixation)</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure tube has not migrated from/into stomach and external over granulation</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Tube insertion and rotation (gastrostomy without jejunal extension only)</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Weekly</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Prevent internal overgranulation/prevention of buried bumper syndrome</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Balloon water volume (balloon retained gastrostomies only)</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Weekly</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To prevent tube falling out</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Jejunostomy tube position by noting position of external markers</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_20_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Confirmation of position</td></tr><tr><th headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3" id="hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_26_1" colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Parenteral nutrition</th></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_26_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Catheter entry site<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_26_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_26_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Signs of infection/inflammation</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_26_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Skin over position of catheter tip (peripherally fed people)<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_26_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_26_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Signs of thrombophlebitis</td></tr><tr><th headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3" id="hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Clinical condition</th></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">General condition<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure that patient is tolerating feed and that feeding and route continue to be appropriate</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Temperature/blood pressure</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, then as needed</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Sign of infection/fluid balance</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Drug therapy<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, reducing to monthly when stable</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_29_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Appropriate preparation of drug (to reduce incidence of tube blockage). To prevent/reduce drug nutrient interactions</td></tr><tr><th headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3" id="hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_33_1" colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Long-/short-term goals</th></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_33_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Are goals being met?<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_33_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, reducing to twice weekly and then progressively to 3–6 monthly, unless clinical condition changes</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_33_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure that feeding is appropriate to overall care of patient</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_1 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_33_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Are goals still appropriate?<sup>*</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_2 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_33_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Daily initially, reducing to twice weekly and then progressively to 3–6 monthly, unless clinical condition changes</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab2_1_1_1_3 hd_b_cha.tab2_1_1_33_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To ensure that feeding is appropriate to overall care of patient</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="tblwrap-foot"><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>*</dt><dd><div id="cha.tab1_1"><p class="no_margin">People at home having parenteral nutrition should be monitored using observations marked.</p></div></dd></dl></dl></div></div></div></article><article data-type="table-wrap" id="figobchatab3"><div id="cha.tab3" class="table"><h3><span class="label">Table 2</span><span class="title">Protocol for laboratory monitoring of nutrition support</span></h3><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab3/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__cha.tab3_lrgtbl__"><table class="no_bottom_margin"><thead><tr><th id="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Parameter</th><th id="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Frequency</th><th id="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Rationale</th><th id="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Interpretation</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Sodium, potassium, urea, creatinine</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
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<p>Baseline</p>
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|
<p>Daily until stable</p>
|
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<p>Then 1 or 2 times a week</p>
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Assessment of renal function, fluid status, and Na and K status</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p>Interpret with knowledge of fluid balance and medication</p>
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<p>Urinary sodium may be helpful in complex cases with gastrointestinal fluid loss</p>
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</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Glucose</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
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<p>Baseline</p>
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<p>1 or 2 times a day (or more if needed) until stable</p>
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<p>Then weekly</p>
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Glucose intolerance is common</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Good glycaemic control is necessary</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Magnesium, phosphate</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
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<p>Baseline</p>
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<p>Daily if risk of refeeding syndrome</p>
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<p>Three times a week until stable</p>
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<p>Then weekly</p>
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Depletion is common and under recognised</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Low concentrations indicate poor status</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Liver function tests including International Normalised Ratio (INR)</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
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<p>Baseline</p>
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<p>Twice weekly until stable</p>
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<p>Then weekly</p>
|
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Abnormalities common during parenteral nutrition</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Complex. May be due to sepsis, other disease or nutritional intake</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Calcium, albumin</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
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<p>Baseline</p>
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<p>Then weekly</p>
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Hypocalcaemia or hypercalcaemia may occur</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p>Correct measured serum calcium concentration for albumin</p>
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<p>Hypocalcaemia may be secondary to Mg deficiency</p>
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<p>Low albumin reflects disease not protein status</p>
|
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</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">C-reactive protein</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
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<p>Baseline</p>
|
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<p>Then 2 or 3 times a week until stable</p>
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Assists interpretation of protein, trace element and vitamin results</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">To assess the presence of an acute phase reaction (APR). The trend of results is important</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Zinc, copper</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
|
<p>Baseline</p>
|
|
<p>Then every 2–4 weeks, depending on results</p>
|
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Deficiency common, especially when increased losses</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p>People most at risk when anabolic</p>
|
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<p>APR causes Zn decrease and Cu increase</p>
|
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</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Selenium<sup>a</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
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<p>Baseline if risk of depletion</p>
|
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<p>Further testing dependent on baseline</p>
|
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Se deficiency likely in severe illness and sepsis, or long-term nutrition support</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p>APR causes Se decrease</p>
|
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<p>Long-term status better assessed by glutathione peroxidase</p>
|
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</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Full blood count and MCV</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
|
<p>Baseline</p>
|
|
<p>1 or 2 times a week until stable</p>
|
|
<p>Then weekly</p>
|
|
</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Anaemia due to iron or folate deficiency is common</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Effects of sepsis may be important</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Iron, ferritin</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
|
|
<p>Baseline</p>
|
|
<p>Then every 3–6 months</p>
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Iron deficiency common in long-term parenteral nutrition</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Iron status difficult if APR (Fe decrease, ferritin increase)</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Folate, B12</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p>Baseline</p>
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<p>Then every 2–4 weeks</p>
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Iron deficiency is common</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Serum folate/B12 sufficient, with full blood count</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Manganese<sup>b</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Every 3–6 months if on home parenteral nutrition</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Excess provision to be avoided, more likely if liver disease</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Red blood cell or whole blood better measure of excess than plasma</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">25-OH Vit D<sup>b</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">6 monthly if on long-term support</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Low if housebound</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Requires normal kidney function for effect</td></tr><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Bone densitometry<sup>b</sup></td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p>On starting home parenteral nutrition</p>
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<p>Then every 2 years</p>
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_3" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Metabolic bone disease diagnosis</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab3_1_1_1_4" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">Together with lab tests for metabolic bone disease</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="tblwrap-foot"><div><dl class="temp-labeled-list small"><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>a</dt><dd><div id="cha.tab2_1"><p class="no_margin">These tests are needed primarily for people having parenteral nutrition in the community.</p></div></dd></dl><dl class="bkr_refwrap"><dt>b</dt><dd><div id="cha.tab2_2"><p class="no_margin">These tests are rarely needed for people having enteral tube feeding (in hospital or in the community), unless there is cause for concern.</p></div></dd></dl></dl></div></div></div></article><article data-type="boxed-text" id="figobchabox3"><div id="cha.box3" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><h3><span class="label">Box 2</span><span class="title">Indicators of dysphagia</span></h3><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col table-wrap" id="figchatab4"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab4/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Table" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figchatab4" rid-ob="figobchatab4"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab4/?report=thumb" src-large="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab4/?report=previmg" alt="Image " /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt"><h4 id="cha.tab4"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab4/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobchatab4">Table</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Difficult, painful chewing or swallowing Regurgitation of undigested food</p></div></div></div></article><article data-type="table-wrap" id="figobchatab4"><div id="cha.tab4" class="table"><p class="large-table-link" style="display:none"><span class="right"><a href="/books/NBK553310/table/cha.tab4/?report=objectonly" target="object">View in own window</a></span></p><div class="large_tbl" id="__cha.tab4_lrgtbl__"><table><thead><tr><th id="hd_h_cha.tab4_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Obvious indicators of dysphagia</th><th id="hd_h_cha.tab4_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:middle;">Less obvious indicators of dysphagia</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab4_1_1_1_1" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p>Difficult, painful chewing or swallowing</p>
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<p>Regurgitation of undigested food</p>
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<p>Difficulty controlling food or liquid in the mouth</p>
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<p>Drooling</p>
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<p>Hoarse voice</p>
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<p>Coughing or choking before, during or after swallowing</p>
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<p>Globus sensation</p>
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<p>Nasal regurgitation</p>
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<p>Feeling of obstruction</p>
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<p>Unintentional weight loss – for example, in people with dementia</p>
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</td><td headers="hd_h_cha.tab4_1_1_1_2" rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;">
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<p>Change in respiration pattern</p>
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<p>Unexplained temperature spikes</p>
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<p>Wet voice quality</p>
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<p>Tongue fasciculation (may be indicative of motor neurone disease)</p>
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<p>Xerostomia</p>
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<p>Heartburn</p>
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<p>Change in eating habits – for example, eating slowly or avoiding social occasions</p>
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<p>Frequent throat clearing</p>
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<p>Recurrent chest infections</p>
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<p>Atypical chest pain</p>
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</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></article><article data-type="boxed-text" id="figobchabox4"><div id="cha.box4" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><h3><span class="label">Box 3</span><span class="title">Factors to be considered before modification of nutrition support and hydration in people with dysphagia</span></h3><p>Recurrent chest infections</p><p>Mobility</p><p>Dependency on others for assistance to eat</p><p>Perceived palatability and appearance of food or drink</p><p>Level of alertness</p><p>Compromised physiology</p><p>Poor oral hygiene</p><p>Compromised medical status</p><p>Metabolic and nutritional requirements</p><p>Vulnerability (for example, immunocompromised)</p><p>Comorbidities</p></div></article><article data-type="boxed-text" id="figobchabox5"><div id="cha.box5" class="box boxed-text-box whole_rhythm hide-overflow"><p>You can also see this guideline in the NICE pathways on <a href="https://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/nutrition-support-in-adults" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">nutrition support in adults</a> and <a href="https://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/stroke" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">stroke</a>.</p><p>To find out what NICE has said on topics related to this guideline, see our web page on <a href="https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/conditions-and-diseases/diabetes-and-other-endocrinal--nutritional-and-metabolic-conditions/endocrinal--nutritional-and-metabolic-conditions--general-and-other" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">endocrinal, nutritional and metabolic conditions: general and other</a>.</p><p>See also the guideline committee’s discussion and the evidence reviews (in the <a href="http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG32/evidence" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">full guideline</a>), and information about <a href="http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG32/documents" ref="pagearea=body&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=uri">how the guideline was developed</a>, including details of the committee.</p></div></article></div><div id="jr-scripts"><script src="/corehtml/pmc/jatsreader/ptpmc_3.22/js/libs.min.js"> </script><script src="/corehtml/pmc/jatsreader/ptpmc_3.22/js/jr.min.js"> </script></div></div>
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