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<meta name="robots" content="INDEX,FOLLOW,NOARCHIVE" /><meta name="author" content="Kenneth R Feingold, Bradley Anawalt, Marc R Blackman, Alison Boyce, George Chrousos, Emiliano Corpas, Wouter W de Herder, Ketan Dhatariya, Kathleen Dungan, Johannes Hofland, Sanjay Kalra, Gregory Kaltsas, Nitin Kapoor, Christian Koch, Peter Kopp, Márta Korbonits, Christopher S Kovacs, Wendy Kuohung, Blandine Laferrère, Miles Levy, Elizabeth A McGee, Robert McLachlan, Radhika Muzumdar, Jonathan Purnell, Rakesh Sahay, Amy S Shah, Frederick Singer, Mark A Sperling, Constantine A Stratakis, Dace L Trence, Don P Wilson" /><meta name="citation_title" content="Endotext" /><meta name="citation_publisher" content="MDText.com, Inc." /><meta name="citation_date" content="2000" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Kenneth R Feingold" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Bradley Anawalt" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Marc R Blackman" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Alison Boyce" /><meta name="citation_author" content="George Chrousos" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Emiliano Corpas" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Wouter W de Herder" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Ketan Dhatariya" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Kathleen Dungan" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Johannes Hofland" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Sanjay Kalra" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Gregory Kaltsas" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Nitin Kapoor" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Christian Koch" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Peter Kopp" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Márta Korbonits" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Christopher S Kovacs" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Wendy Kuohung" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Blandine Laferrère" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Miles Levy" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Elizabeth A McGee" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Robert McLachlan" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Radhika Muzumdar" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Jonathan Purnell" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Rakesh Sahay" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Amy S Shah" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Frederick Singer" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Mark A Sperling" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Constantine A Stratakis" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Dace L Trence" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Don P Wilson" /><meta name="citation_pmid" content="25905160" /><meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278943/" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/DC/elements/1.0/" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="Endotext" /><meta name="DC.Type" content="Text" /><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="MDText.com, Inc." /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Kenneth R Feingold" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Bradley Anawalt" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Marc R Blackman" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Alison Boyce" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="George Chrousos" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Emiliano Corpas" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Wouter W de Herder" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Ketan Dhatariya" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Kathleen Dungan" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Johannes Hofland" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Sanjay Kalra" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Gregory Kaltsas" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Nitin Kapoor" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Christian Koch" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Peter Kopp" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Márta Korbonits" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Christopher S Kovacs" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Wendy Kuohung" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Blandine Laferrère" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Miles Levy" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Elizabeth A McGee" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Robert McLachlan" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Radhika Muzumdar" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Jonathan Purnell" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Rakesh Sahay" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Amy S Shah" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Frederick Singer" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Mark A Sperling" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Constantine A Stratakis" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Dace L Trence" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Don P Wilson" /><meta name="DC.Date" content="2000" /><meta name="DC.Identifier" content="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278943/" /><meta name="description" content="Endotext (Endotext.org) is an online resource on endocrine disease written by physicians and directed toward physicians around the world caring for patients with endocrine disorders. 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<div class="main-content lit-style" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Book"><div class="meta-content fm-sec"><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix no_top_margin"><a href="http://www.endotext.org/" title="MDText.com, Inc." class="img_link icnblk_img" ref="pagearea=logo&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher"><img class="source-thumb" src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-endotext-lrg.png" alt="Cover of Endotext" /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt"><h1 id="_NBK278943_"><span itemprop="name">Endotext</span></h1><p class="contrib-group">Editors: <span itemprop="editor">Kenneth R Feingold</span>, Editor-in-chief, <span itemprop="editor">Bradley Anawalt</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Marc R Blackman</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Alison Boyce</span>, <span itemprop="editor">George Chrousos</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Emiliano Corpas</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Wouter W de Herder</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Ketan Dhatariya</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Kathleen Dungan</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Johannes Hofland</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Sanjay Kalra</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Gregory Kaltsas</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Nitin Kapoor</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Christian Koch</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Peter Kopp</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Márta Korbonits</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Christopher S Kovacs</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Wendy Kuohung</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Blandine Laferrère</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Miles Levy</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Elizabeth A McGee</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Robert McLachlan</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Radhika Muzumdar</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Jonathan Purnell</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Rakesh Sahay</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Amy S Shah</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Frederick Singer</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Mark A Sperling</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Constantine A Stratakis</span>, <span itemprop="editor">Dace L Trence</span>, and <span itemprop="editor">Don P Wilson</span>.</p><a data-jig="ncbitoggler" href="#__NBK278943_ai__" style="border:0;text-decoration:none">Editor Information</a><div style="display:none" class="ui-widget" id="__NBK278943_ai__"><p class="contrib-group"><h4>Editors</h4>Editors: <span itemprop="editor">Kenneth R Feingold</span>, Editor-in-chief,<sup>1</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Bradley Anawalt</span>,<sup>2</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Marc R Blackman</span>,<sup>3</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Alison Boyce</span>,<sup>4</sup> <span itemprop="editor">George Chrousos</span>,<sup>5</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Emiliano Corpas</span>,<sup>6</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Wouter W de Herder</span>,<sup>7</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Ketan Dhatariya</span>,<sup>8</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Kathleen Dungan</span>,<sup>9</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Johannes Hofland</span>,<sup>10</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Sanjay Kalra</span>,<sup>11</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Gregory Kaltsas</span>,<sup>12</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Nitin Kapoor</span>,<sup>13</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Christian Koch</span>,<sup>14</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Peter Kopp</span>,<sup>15</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Márta Korbonits</span>,<sup>16</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Christopher S Kovacs</span>,<sup>17</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Wendy Kuohung</span>,<sup>18</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Blandine Laferrère</span>,<sup>19</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Miles Levy</span>,<sup>20</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Elizabeth A McGee</span>,<sup>21</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Robert McLachlan</span>,<sup>22</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Radhika Muzumdar</span>,<sup>23</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Jonathan Purnell</span>,<sup>24</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Rakesh Sahay</span>,<sup>25</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Amy S Shah</span>,<sup>26</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Frederick Singer</span>,<sup>27</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Mark A Sperling</span>,<sup>28</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Constantine A Stratakis</span>,<sup>29</sup> <span itemprop="editor">Dace L Trence</span>,<sup>30</sup> and <span itemprop="editor">Don P Wilson</span><sup>31</sup>.</p><h4>Affiliations</h4><div class="affiliation"><sup>1</sup> Professor of Medicine Emeritus, University of California, San Francisco, CA</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>2</sup> Chief of Medicine at the University of Washington Medical Center and Professor and Vice Chair of the Department of Medicine, University of Washington</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>3</sup> Sr. Physician Scientist, Washington DC VA Medical Center; Professor of Medicine & Rehabilitation Medicine, Georgetown University; Clinical Professor of Medicine, Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, George Washington University; and Professor of Medicine (Part-time), Johns Hopkins University</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>4</sup> Pediatric Endocrinologist and Associate Research Physician in the Skeletal Diseases and Mineral Homeostasis Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>5</sup> Professor of Pediatrics and Endocrinology, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, First Department of Pediatrics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Medical School, "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, Greece</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>6</sup> M.D. Ph.D in Gerontology. Honorary Professor of Medicine, Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid. Consultant in Endocrinology, Hospital HLA Guadalajara (Spain).</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>7</sup> Professor of Endocrine Oncology, Erasmus MC and Erasmus MC Cancer Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>8</sup> Consultant in Diabetes, Endocrinology and General Medicine, Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust and University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK.</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>9</sup> Professor of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Ohio State University</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>10</sup> Consultant Endocrinologist, Erasmus MC and Erasmus MC Cancer Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>11</sup> Consultant Endocrinologist, Department of Endocrinology, Bharti Hospital, Karnal, India</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>12</sup> Professor of General Medicine-Endocrinology, 1st Department of Propaedeutic Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>13</sup> Professor of Endocrinology, Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Christian Medical College & Hospital, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Science, The University of Melbourne, Australia.</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>14</sup> Professor, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>15</sup> Professor of Medicine and Chief of the Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University of Lausanne, Switzerland</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>16</sup> Professor of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Centre Lead for Endocrinology and Deputy Institute Director, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, England</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>17</sup> University Research Professor and Professor of Medicine (Endocrinology and Metabolism), Obstetrics & Gynecology, and BioMedical Sciences, at Memorial University of Newfoundland in St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>18</sup> Director of the Division of Reproductive Endocrinology at Boston Medical Center and an Associate Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the Boston University School of Medicine</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>19</sup> Professor of Medicine, New York Nutrition Obesity Research Center, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>20</sup> Consultant endocrinologist at University Hospitals of Leicester and Honorary Associate Professor at Leicester University</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>21</sup> Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University of Vermont and Director of the Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility. Burlington, Vermont</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>22</sup> Director of Clinical Research, Hudson Institute of Medical Research; Consultant Endocrinologist, Monash Medical Centre, Melbourne, Australia</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>23</sup> Allan L. Drash Endowed Chair, Chief, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, Professor of Pediatrics and Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>24</sup> Professor of Medicine, Knight Cardiovascular Institute and the Division of Endocrinology, and Associate Director, Bob and Charlee Moore Institute for Nutrition and Wellness, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>25</sup> Professor and Head of Department of Endocrinology, Osmania Medical College and Osmania General Hospital, Hyderabad, India.</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>26</sup> Professor of Pediatrics, The University of Cincinnati, Department of Pediatrics and Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Division of Endocrinology, Cincinnati, OH, USA</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>27</sup> Director of the Endocrine/Bone Disease Program, Saint Johns Cancer Institute at Saint John’s Health Center, Santa Monica, CA; Clinical Professor of Medicine, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>28</sup> Professorial Lecturer, Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY. Emeritus Professor and Chair, Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh.</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>29</sup> CSO, ELPEN, Inc. & Director, Research Institute, Athens, Greece & Senior Investigator, Human Genetics & Precision Medicine, FORTH (ITE), Heraklion, Greece. Emeritus Scientific Director & Senior Investigator, NICHD, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>30</sup> Professor of Medicine, Emeritus, University of Washington, Seattle, WA</div><div class="affiliation"><sup>31</sup> Endowed Chair, Cardiovascular Health and Risk Prevention, Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cook Children's Medical Center, Fort Worth, TX</div></div><div class="half_rhythm">South Dartmouth (MA): <a href="http://www.endotext.org/" ref="pagearea=meta&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher"><span itemprop="publisher">MDText.com, Inc.</span></a>; <span itemprop="datePublished">2000</span>-.</div><div class="half_rhythm"><ul class="inline_list"><li><span class="label"><a data-jig="ncbidialog" href="#_ncbi_dlg_cpyrght_NBK278943" data-jigconfig="modal:true">Copyright and
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diagnosis, and treatment.</p></div><div><h2>Contents</h2><div class="bktoc_all_cntnr top align_right" style="display:none"><ul class="inline_list_right"><li><a class="bktoc_all_exp" href="#">Expand All</a></li><li style="margin-left:.8em"><a class="bktoc_all_clps" href="#">Collapse All</a></li></ul></div><ul id="toc_tllNBK278943_toc_adrenal" class="simple-list toc toc-toggle"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adrenal"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adrenal/">Adrenal Disease and Function</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK278943_toc_adrenal" class="simple-list toc bktoc_lst_exp"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_acth-action-adren"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/acth-action-adren/">ACTH Action on the Adrenals</a><div>Anna Angelousi, Andrew N. Margioris, and Christos Tsatsanis.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 13, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_aids-hpa-axis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/aids-hpa-axis/">AIDS and HPA Axis</a><div>Nicolas C. Nicolaides, Tomoshige Kino, and George Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: November 24, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adren-androgens"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adren-androgens/">Adrenal Androgens</a><div>Athanasios Antoniou-Tsigkos, Evangelia Zapanti, Lucia Ghizzoni, and George Mastorakos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 5, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adren-cortex-d-a-p"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adren-cortex-d-a-p/">Adrenal Cortex: Embryonic Development, Anatomy, Histology and Physiology</a><div>Nicolas C. Nicolaides, Holger S. Willenberg, Stefan R. Bornstein, and George P. Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 12, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adren-incidentalomas_adrenal"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adren-incidentalomas/">Adrenal Incidentaloma</a><div>Eleftherios Chatzellis and Gregory Kaltsas.</div><div class="small">Last Update: May 28, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adren-insuf-x-l-a"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adren-insuf-x-l-a/">Adrenal Insufficiency Due to X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy</a><div>Sophia Vlachou, George Kanakis, and Gregory Kaltsas.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 23, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_aldoster-defic-resis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/aldoster-defic-resis/">Aldosterone Deficiency and Resistance</a><div>Keiko Arai, Nektaria Papadopoulou-Marketou, and George P. Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: November 24, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_glucocort-ind-osteop"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/glucocort-ind-osteop/">An Overview of Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis</a><div>Ioannis Ilias, Charalampos Milionis, and Emmanouil Zoumakis.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 19, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_autoimm-plyglnd-synd"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/autoimm-plyglnd-synd/">Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndromes</a><div>Mark A. Sperling, Anna Angelousi, and Mabel Yau.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 21, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_carneys-complex"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/carneys-complex/">Carney Complex</a><div>Gregory Kaltsas, George Kanakis, and George Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 13, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_chronic-fatigue-synd"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/chronic-fatigue-synd/">Chronic Fatigue Syndrome</a><div>WT Lim and DJ Torpy.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 30, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_congn-adren-hyprplsa"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/congn-adren-hyprplsa/">Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia</a><div>Mabel Yau, Ahmed Khattab, Tony Yuen, and Maria New.</div><div class="small">Last Update: November 3, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_cort-rh-imm-inflamm"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/cort-rh-imm-inflamm/">Corticotropin Releasing Hormone And The Immune/Inflammatory Response</a><div>Markella Nezi, George Mastorakos, and Zadalla Mouslech.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 30, 2015.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diag-mgmt-adr-carc"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diag-mgmt-adr-carc/">Current Issues in the Diagnosis and Management of Adrenocortical Carcinomas</a><div>Anna Angelousi, Eva Kassi, and Gregory A. Kaltsas.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 30, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_cushings-disease"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/cushings-disease/">Cushing’s Syndrome</a><div>Agata Juszczak, Damian Morris, and Ashley Grossman.</div><div class="small">Last Update: September 5, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_fam-sprdic-adrn-hypo"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/fam-sprdic-adrn-hypo/">Familial or Sporadic Adrenal Hypoplasia Syndromes</a><div>Eleni Magdalini Kyritsi, Amalia Sertedaki, Evangelia Charmandari, and George P Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: October 22, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_fibromyalgia"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/fibromyalgia/">Fibromyalgia</a><div>Gregory Kaltsas and Konstantinos Tsiveriotis.</div><div class="small">Last Update: November 9, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_glucocort-receptor"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/glucocort-receptor/">Glucocorticoid Receptor</a><div>Nicolas C. Nicolaides, George Chrousos, and Tomoshige Kino.</div><div class="small">Last Update: November 21, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_glucocort-therapy-as"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/glucocort-therapy-as/">Glucocorticoid Therapy and Adrenal Suppression</a><div>Nicolas C Nicolaides, Aikaterini N Pavlaki, Maria Alexandra Maria Alexandra, and George P Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: October 19, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hpa-axis-sleep"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hpa-axis-sleep/">HPA Axis and Sleep</a><div>Nicolas C. Nicolaides, Alexandros N. Vgontzas, Ilia Kritikou, and George Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: November 24, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hormones-cardio-sys"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hormones-cardio-sys/">Hormones of the Cardiovascular System</a><div>Michael E Hall, Licy Yanes, Robert C Long, and Christian A Koch.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 6, 2015.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hyperaldosteronism"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hyperaldosteronism/">Hyperaldosteronism</a><div>Nektaria Papadopoulou-Marketou, Anand Vaidya, Robert Dluhy, and George P. Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 6, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_immune-sys-efct-endo"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/immune-sys-efct-endo/">Immune System Effects on the Endocrine System</a><div>Maria P. Yavropoulou, Petros P. Sfikakis, and George P. Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: November 8, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_norm-physio-acth-gh_adrenal"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/norm-physio-acth-gh/">Normal Physiology of ACTH and GH Release in the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary in Man</a><div>Chung Thong Lim and Bernard Khoo.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 28, 2025.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_ov-endo-hypertension"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/ov-endo-hypertension/">Overview of Endocrine Hypertension</a><div>Christian Koch, Nektaria Papadopoulou-Marketou, and George P. Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 4, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_phechrmcytm-prglioma2"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/phechrmcytm-prglioma2/">Pheochromocytoma and Paraganglioma</a><div>Karel Pacak and Sri Harsha Tella.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 4, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_glucocort-resistance"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/glucocort-resistance/">Primary Generalized Glucocorticoid Resistance Syndrome</a><div>Tomoshige Kino, Nicolas C. Nicolaides, Evangelia Charmandari, and George P. Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: May 19, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_strss-endo-pathophys"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/strss-endo-pathophys/">Stress: Endocrine Physiology and Pathophysiology</a><div>Constantine Tsigos, Ioannis Kyrou, Eva Kassi, and George P. Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: October 17, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_vonhippel-lindau-syn"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/vonhippel-lindau-syn/">Von Hippel-Lindau Disease</a><div>Sven Gläsker, Hartmut P.H. Neumann, Christian A. Koch, and Alexander Vortmeyer.</div><div class="small">Last Update: September 12, 2018.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_aging"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/aging/">Endocrinology of Aging</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK278943_toc_aging" class="simple-list toc bktoc_lst_exp"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adren-andro-aging"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adren-andro-aging/">Adrenal Androgens and Aging</a><div>Nektaria Papadopoulou-Marketou, Eva Kassi, and George P. Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 18, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adren-incidentalomas"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adren-incidentalomas/">Adrenal Incidentaloma</a><div>Eleftherios Chatzellis and Gregory Kaltsas.</div><div class="small">Last Update: May 28, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_age-rel-chang-mra"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/age-rel-chang-mra/">Age-Related Changes in the Male Reproductive System</a><div>Shalender Bhasin, Rodrigo J. Valderrábano, and Thiago Gagliano-Jucá.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 10, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_benign-prstate-dsrdr_aging"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/benign-prstate-dsrdr/">Benign Prostate Disorders</a><div>Nathan Lawrentschuk, Gideon Ptasznik, and Sean Ong.</div><div class="small">Last Update: October 7, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_clin-prblms-obesity"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/clin-prblms-obesity/">Clinical Problems Caused by Obesity</a><div>Ioannis Kyrou, Harpal S Randeva, Constantine Tsigos, Grigorios Kaltsas, and Martin O Weickert.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 11, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diab-elderly"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diab-elderly/">Diabetes in the Elderly</a><div>Anna Milanesi and Jane E. 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McKee and John E, Morley.</div><div class="small">Last Update: September 19, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_osteoporosis-clinic_aging"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/osteoporosis-clinic/">Osteoporosis: Clinical Evaluation</a><div>E. Michael Lewiecki.</div><div class="small">Last Update: November 2, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_osteoporosis-prevent_aging"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/osteoporosis-prevent/">Osteoporosis: Prevention and Treatment</a><div>Sarah Zaheer and Meryl S LeBoff.</div><div class="small">Last Update: December 27, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_prostate-cancer-det_aging"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/prostate-cancer-det/">Prostate Cancer Detection</a><div>Matthew John Roberts, Patrick Teloken, Suzanne K Chambers, Scott G Williams, John Yaxley, Hema Samaratunga, Mark Frydenberg, and Robert A. 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Lam and Derek LeRoith.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 11, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_tech-gluc-monitoring"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/tech-gluc-monitoring/">Monitoring Technologies- Continuous Glucose Monitoring, Mobile Technology, Biomarkers of Glycemic Control</a><div>Nihaal Reddy, Neha Verma, and Kathleen Dungan.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 8, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diab_nonalc_fattyliv"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diab_nonalc_fattyliv/">Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: The Overlooked Complication of Type 2 Diabetes</a><div>Divya Akshintala, Radhika Chugh, Farah Amer, and Kenneth Cusi.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 9, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_nondiab_hypoglyc"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/nondiab_hypoglyc/">Non-Diabetic Hypoglycemia</a><div>Maria S. Rayas and Marzieh Salehi.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 27, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_non-phrma-intrvn-t2d"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/non-phrma-intrvn-t2d/">Non-Pharmaceutical Intervention Options For Type 2 Diabetes: Complementary & Integrative Health Approaches (Including Natural Products And Mind/Body Practices)</a><div>Skye A. McKennon.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 6, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_pharmaco-agent-diab2"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/pharmaco-agent-diab2/">Oral and Injectable (Non-Insulin) Pharmacological Agents for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes</a><div>Kenneth R. 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Ajjan.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 1, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diabetes_prediabete"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diabetes_prediabete/">Prediabetes</a><div>Leigh Perreault.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 3, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diab-pregestational"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diab-pregestational/">Pregestational Diabetes Mellitus</a><div>Christine P. Field, Erin M. Cleary, Stephen F. Thung, Kartik Venkatesh, and Elizabeth O. Buschur.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 3, 2025.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_epidem-cardio-diabet"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/epidem-cardio-diabet/">Role of Glucose and Lipids in the Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in Patients with Diabetes</a><div>Kenneth R. 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Lue.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 8, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diab-skin"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diab-skin/">Skin Manifestations of Diabetes Mellitus</a><div>Angelina Labib, Jordan Rosen, and Gil Yosipovitch.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 21, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_surg-treat-obesity"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/surg-treat-obesity/">Surgical Prevention and Treatment of Diabetes</a><div>Alexis Sudlow, Dimitri Pournaras, and Paul O'Brien.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 2, 2025.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diab-foot"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diab-foot/">The Diabetic Foot</a><div>Andrew J.M. Boulton and Richard W. 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Reusch.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 6, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_mgmt-t1t2diab-child"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/mgmt-t1t2diab-child/">Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents</a><div>Mabel Yau and Mark A. Sperling.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 28, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_transplant-pancreas"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/transplant-pancreas/">Update on Pancreatic Transplantation in the Management of Diabetes</a><div>Carlo Lombardo, Vittorio G. Perrone, Gabriella Amorese, Fabio Vistoli, Walter Baronti, Piero Marchetti, and Ugo Boggi.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 17, 2021.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_emergencies"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/emergencies/">Endocrine Emergencies</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK278943_toc_emergencies" class="simple-list toc bktoc_lst_exp"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adren-suppression"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adren-suppression/">Adrenal Suppression</a><div>Krystallenia I Alexandraki, Gregory A Kaltsas, and George P Chrousos.</div><div class="small">Last Update: October 1, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adrenocort-carcinoma"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adrenocort-carcinoma/">Adrenocortical Carcinoma</a><div>Anna Angelousi, Eva Kassi, and Gregory A. Kaltsas.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 9, 2025.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_amiodar-induc-thyro"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/amiodar-induc-thyro/">Amiodarone Induced Thyrotoxicosis</a><div>Paolo E. Macchia and Kenneth R. Feingold.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 1, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_congn-adren-hp-emerg"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/congn-adren-hp-emerg/">Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Diagnosis and Emergency Treatment</a><div>Mabel Yau, Jasmine Gujral, and Maria I New.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 16, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_congn-hypothyroidism"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/congn-hypothyroidism/">Congenital Hypothyroidism</a><div>Maria Segni.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 11, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diab-insipidus"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diab-insipidus/">Diabetes Insipidus</a><div>Stephan Ball.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 13, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diab-ketoacidosis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diab-ketoacidosis/">Diabetic Ketoacidosis</a><div>Adair R Gosmanov and Abbas E Kitabchi.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 28, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_emerg-adren-insuffic"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/emerg-adren-insuffic/">Diagnosis and Management of Adrenal Insufficiency</a><div>Krystallenia I Alexandraki and Ashley Grossman.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 20, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_emg-ambig-gen-nwbrn"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/emg-ambig-gen-nwbrn/">Disorders of Sexual Development in Newborns</a><div>Mabel Yau, Jasmine Gujral, Ahmed Khattab, and Maria New.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 25, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_acute-ons-diab-chil"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/acute-ons-diab-chil/">Emergencies in Childhood Diabetes</a><div>Saleh Adi.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 27, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_phechrmcytm-prglioma"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/phechrmcytm-prglioma/">Emergencies Related to Pheochromocytoma/Paraganglioma Syndrome</a><div>Vitaly Kantorovich and Karel Pacak.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 29, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_endocrin-hyperten"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/endocrin-hyperten/">Endocrine Hypertension</a><div>Eugen Melcescu and Christian A Koch.</div><div class="small">Last Update: October 11, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_florid-cushings-synd"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/florid-cushings-synd/">Florid Cushing’s Syndrome</a><div>Krystallenia I Alexandraki and Ashley Grossman.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 19, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hypercalcemia"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hypercalcemia/">Hypercalcemia</a><div>David Goltzman.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 4, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hyperglycm-hyperosm"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hyperglycm-hyperosm/">Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State</a><div>Anna Milanesi and Jane E Weinreb.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 1, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hyperthyroidism-preg"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hyperthyroidism-preg/">Hyperthyroidism in Pregnancy</a><div>Onyebuchi E Okosieme and John H Lazarus.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 9, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hyprtrigly-pancreat"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hyprtrigly-pancreat/">Pancreatitis Secondary to Hypertriglyceridemia</a><div>Kenneth R. Feingold.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 3, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hypocalcemia-mment"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hypocalcemia-mment/">Hypocalcemia</a><div>Madhu N Rao and Dolores M Shoback.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 2, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hypoglycemia"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hypoglycemia/">Hypoglycemia</a><div>Marisa E Desimone and Ruth S Weinstock.</div><div class="small">Last Update: May 5, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hyponatremia"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hyponatremia/">Hyponatremia</a><div>Stephen Ball.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 6, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hypopituitarism"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hypopituitarism/">Hypopituitarism: Emergencies</a><div>Zeina C Hannoush and Roy E Weiss.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 23, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_hypothyrd-pregnancy"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/hypothyrd-pregnancy/">Hypothyroidism in Pregnancy</a><div>Onyebuchi E Okosieme and John H Lazarus.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 11, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_sev-hyperglycm-diab2"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/sev-hyperglycm-diab2/">Initial Management of Severe Hyperglycemia in Type 2 Diabetes</a><div>Jing H Chao and Irl B Hirsch.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 18, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_inpatient-diab-mgmt"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/inpatient-diab-mgmt/">Inpatient Diabetes Management</a><div>Robert J Rushakoff.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 7, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_kidney-stone-emergen"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/kidney-stone-emergen/">Kidney Stone Emergencies</a><div>Murray J Favus and Kenneth R. Feingold.</div><div class="small">Last Update: September 13, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_myxedema-coma-severe"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/myxedema-coma-severe/">Myxedema and Coma (Severe Hypothyroidism)</a><div>Wilmar M Wiersinga.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 25, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_neonat-hyperthyroid"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/neonat-hyperthyroid/">Neonatal Hyperthyroidism</a><div>Maria Segni.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 15, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_osteoporo-vrtbr-frct"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/osteoporo-vrtbr-frct/">New Osteoporotic/Vertebral Compression Fractures</a><div>Sharon Chou, Anjali Grover, and Meryl S. LeBoff.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 9, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_pituitary-apoplexy"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/pituitary-apoplexy/">Pituitary Apoplexy</a><div>Zeina C Hannoush and Roy E Weiss.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 22, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_postprtm-thyroiditis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/postprtm-thyroiditis/">Postpartum Thyroiditis</a><div>Hidefumi Inaba and Takashi Akamizu.</div><div class="small">Last Update: May 8, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_adren-insufficiency"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/adren-insufficiency/">Adrenal Insufficiency</a><div>Krystallenia I. Alexandraki, Kanokporn Sanpawithayakul, and Ashley Grossman.</div><div class="small">Last Update: November 7, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_mgmt-prolactinoma"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/mgmt-prolactinoma/">Prolactinoma Management</a><div>Mark E. Molitch, Juliana Drummond, and Marta Korbonits.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 6, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_svr-hypothyroid-eldr"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/svr-hypothyroid-eldr/">Severe Hypothyroidism in the Elderly</a><div>Matthew Kim.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 12, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_svr-thyrotoxic-eldr"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/svr-thyrotoxic-eldr/">Severe Thyrotoxicosis in the Elderly</a><div>Matthew Kim.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 5, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_sight-threat-graves"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/sight-threat-graves/">Sight-Threatening Graves’ Ophthalmopathy</a><div>Luigi Bartalena.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 3, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_subacute-thyroiditis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/subacute-thyroiditis/">Subacute Thyroiditis</a><div>James v Hennessey.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 12, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_thyroid-storm"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/thyroid-storm/">Thyroid Storm</a><div>Leslie J. De Groot, Luigi Bartalena, and Kenneth R. Feingold.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 1, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_thyroxine-poisoning"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/thyroxine-poisoning/">Thyroxine Poisoning</a><div>Geraldo Medeiros-Neto.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 17, 2018.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_female"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/female/">Endocrinology of Female Reproduction</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK278943_toc_female" class="simple-list toc bktoc_lst_exp"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_abn-fem-pubert-dev"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/abn-fem-pubert-dev/">Abnormalities of Female Pubertal Development</a><div>Mamie McLean, Ann J Davis, and Richard H Reindollar.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 19, 2015.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_benign-brst-dis-wmn"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/benign-brst-dis-wmn/">Benign Breast Disease in Women</a><div>Richard J Santen.</div><div class="small">Last Update: May 25, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_amenorrhea"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/amenorrhea/">Central Causes of Amenorrhea</a><div>James H Liu, Bansari Patel, and Gretchen Collins.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 1, 2016.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_contraception"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/contraception/">Contraception</a><div>Sarah Horvath, Courtney A Schreiber, and Sarita Sonalkar.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 17, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_endocrin-preg"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/endocrin-preg/">Endocrinology of Pregnancy</a><div>Reshef Tal and Hugh S. Taylor.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 18, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_endometriosis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/endometriosis/">Endometriosis</a><div>Olivia J Carpinello, Lauren W Sundheimer, Connie E Alford, Robert N Taylor, and Alan H DeCherney.</div><div class="small">Last Update: October 22, 2017.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_male_gender-dysp-inc_female"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/male_gender-dysp-inc/">Evaluation and Treatment of Gender-Dysphoric/Gender Incongruent Adults</a><div>Nienke M Nota, Martin den Heijer, and Louis J Gooren.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 21, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_eval-trt-polycyst-os"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/eval-trt-polycyst-os/">Evaluation and Treatment of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome</a><div>Richard S Legro.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 11, 2017.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_eval-amenor-anov-ble"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/eval-amenor-anov-ble/">Evaluation of Amenorrhea, Anovulation, and Abnormal Bleeding</a><div>Robert Rebar.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 15, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_eval-infert-idct-ast"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/eval-infert-idct-ast/">Evaluation of Infertility, Ovulation Induction and Assisted Reproduction</a><div>Katherine McKnight and Laurie Jane McKenzie.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 12, 2016.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_menopse-hormon-rplc"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/menopse-hormon-rplc/">Menopause and Hormone Replacement</a><div>Michelle P Warren, Aimee R Shu, and Jennifer E Dominguez.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 25, 2015.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_morpho-physio-ovary"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/morpho-physio-ovary/">Morphology and Physiology of the Ovary</a><div>Carmen J Williams and Gregory F Erickson.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 30, 2012.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_premenstrual-syndrom"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/premenstrual-syndrom/">Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (Formerly Premenstrual Syndrome)</a><div>Robert L Reid.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 23, 2017.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_menstrual-cycl-ovul"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/menstrual-cycl-ovul/">The Normal Menstrual Cycle and the Control of Ovulation</a><div>Beverly G Reed and Bruce R Carr.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 5, 2018.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_guthormone"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/guthormone/">Diffuse Hormonal Systems and Endocrine Tumor Syndromes</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK278943_toc_guthormone" class="simple-list toc bktoc_lst_exp"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_pancr-polypeptide"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/pancr-polypeptide/">CCKoma</a><div>Wouter W de Herder and Johannes Hofland.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 23, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diffuse-hormonal-sys"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diffuse-hormonal-sys/">Diffuse Hormonal Systems</a><div>Amanda Andersson-Rolf, Hans Clevers, and Talya L. Dayton.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 7, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_gastrinoma-zollinger"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/gastrinoma-zollinger/">Gastrinoma</a><div>Robert T. Jensen and Tetsuhide Ito.</div><div class="small">Last Update: September 27, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_carcinoid-tumors"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/carcinoid-tumors/">Gastrointestinal Neuroendocrine Tumors and the Carcinoid Syndrome</a><div>Johannes Hofland and Wouter W. de Herder.</div><div class="small">Last Update: August 25, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_ghrelinoma"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/ghrelinoma/">Ghrelinoma</a><div>Wouter T Zandee, Johannes Hofland, Aart J van de Lely, and Wouter W. de Herder.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 31, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_glucagonoma-syndrome"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/glucagonoma-syndrome/">Glucagon & Glucagonoma Syndrome</a><div>Wouter W. de Herder and Johannes Hofland.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 7, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_insulinomas"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/insulinomas/">Insulinoma</a><div>Wouter W. de Herder and Johannes Hofland.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 4, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_multi-endo-neoplasia1"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/multi-endo-neoplasia1/">Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1</a><div>Carolina R.C. Pieterman, Rachel S. van Leeuwaarde, Medard F. M. van den Broek, Bernadette P.M. van Nesselrooij, and Gerlof D. Valk.</div><div class="small">Last Update: December 22, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_multi-endo-neoplasia2"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/multi-endo-neoplasia2/">Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2</a><div>Mark J.C. van Treijen, Lisa H. de Vries, Doenja Hertog, Menno R. Vriens, Annemarie A. Verrijn Stuart, Bernadette P.M. van Nesselrooij, and Gerlof D. Valk.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 2, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_gut_endoc-neoplas4_guthormone"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/gut_endoc-neoplas4/">Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 4</a><div>Wouter W. de Herder and Johannes Hofland.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 28, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_neurotensinomas"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/neurotensinomas/">Neurotensinomas</a><div>Aaron Vinik.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 5, 2017.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_paranplstc-synd-tmrs"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/paranplstc-synd-tmrs/">Paraneoplastic Syndromes Related to Neuroendocrine Tumors</a><div>Marina Tsoli, Georgios K. Dimitriadis, Ioannis I. Androulakis, Gregory Kaltsas, and Ashley Grossman.</div><div class="small">Last Update: September 26, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_diag-mgmt-pnets"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/diag-mgmt-pnets/">Pathophysiology and Treatment of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms (PNENS): New Developments</a><div>Laura Mariën, Odeta Islam, Laura Van Mileghem, Willem Lybaert, Marc Peeters, and Timon Vandamme.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 8, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_somatostatinoma"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/somatostatinoma/">Somatostatinoma</a><div>Wouter W. de Herder and Johannes Hofland.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 12, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_vipoma"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/vipoma/">Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide-Secreting Tumor (VIPoma)</a><div>Wouter W. de Herder and Johannes Hofland.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 5, 2023.</div></li></ul></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipids"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipids/">Diagnosis and Treatment of Diseases of Lipid and Lipoprotein Metabolism</a><ul id="toc_lst_NBK278943_toc_lipids" class="simple-list toc bktoc_lst_exp"><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_pat-dyslipid"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_pat-dyslipid/">Approach to the Patient with Dyslipidemia</a><div>Kenneth R. Feingold.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 22, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_cereb-xanth_lipids"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/cereb-xanth/">Cerebrotendinous Xanthomatosis</a><div>Nivedita Patni and Don P. Wilson.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 8, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_cholest-drugs"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/cholest-drugs/">Cholesterol Lowering Drugs</a><div>Kenneth R. Feingold.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 12, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_clinman_dysl"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_clinman_dysl/">Clinical Management of Dyslipidemia in Youth with Chronic Kidney Disease</a><div>Alejandro De La Torre, Nivedita Patni, and Don P. Wilson.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 29, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_comb-dyslipid-child_lipids"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/comb-dyslipid-child/">Combined Dyslipidemia in Children and Adolescents</a><div>Rae-Ellen W. Kavey.</div><div class="small">Last Update: May 10, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_dysbetal"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_dysbetal/">Dysbetalipoproteinemia (Type 3 Hyperlipoproteinemia)</a><div>Weerapan Khovidhunkit.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 13, 2025.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_dyslipid-ckd"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_dyslipid-ckd/">Dyslipidemia in Chronic Kidney Disease</a><div>Kyle Rosenstein and Lisa R. 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Feingold.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 14, 2024.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_atherosc-ped"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/atherosc-ped/">Is Atherosclerosis a Pediatric Disease?</a><div>Don P. Wilson.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 23, 2020.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_lifestyle"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_lifestyle/">Lifestyle Changes: Effect of Diet, Exercise, Functional Food, and Obesity Treatment on Lipids and Lipoproteins</a><div>Byambaa Enkhmaa, Prasanth Surampudi, Erdembileg Anuurad, and Lars Berglund.</div><div class="small">Last Update: September 11, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_covid"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_covid/">Lipid and Lipoprotein Levels in Patients with COVID-19 Infections</a><div>Kenneth R. Feingold.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 21, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_mbol-liv"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_mbol-liv/">Lipid and Lipoprotein Metabolism in Liver Disease</a><div>Ashwini Arvind, Stephanie A Osganian, David E Cohen, and Kathleen E Corey.</div><div class="small">Last Update: July 21, 2019.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_hiv"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_hiv/">Lipid Disorders in People with HIV</a><div>Sudipa Sarkar and Todd T. Brown.</div><div class="small">Last Update: January 21, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_youth-screem"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_youth-screem/">Lipid Screening in Youth</a><div>Justin P. Zachariah.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 9, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipoproteina"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipoproteina/">Lipoprotein (a) in Youth</a><div>Catherine J. McNeal and Amy L. Peterson.</div><div class="small">Last Update: April 19, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid-apherer"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid-apherer/">Lipoprotein Apheresis</a><div>Kenneth R. Feingold.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 19, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lys-acid-lipase_lipids"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lys-acid-lipase/">Lysosomal Acid Lipase Deficiency</a><div>Don P. Wilson and Nivedita Patni.</div><div class="small">Last Update: March 15, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipids_sev_hypertri"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipids_sev_hypertri/">Management of Hospitalized Children with Severe Hypertriglyceridemia</a><div>Alejandro De La Torre, Luke Hamilton, and Don P. Wilson.</div><div class="small">Last Update: June 16, 2023.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_medic"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_medic/">Medication Induced Changes in Lipid and Lipoproteins</a><div>Megan Herink and Matthew K Ito.</div><div class="small">Last Update: May 10, 2018.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_lipid_rare-gen-dis"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/lipid_rare-gen-dis/">Monogenic Disorders Causing Hypobetalipoproteinemia</a><div>Michael D. Shapiro and Kenneth R. 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Yeap and Girish Dwivedi.</div><div class="small">Last Update: December 14, 2022.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_benign-prstate-dsrdr"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/benign-prstate-dsrdr/">Benign Prostate Disorders</a><div>Nathan Lawrentschuk, Gideon Ptasznik, and Sean Ong.</div><div class="small">Last Update: October 7, 2021.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_clin-mgt-male-infert"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/clin-mgt-male-infert/">Clinical Management of Male Infertility</a><div>Shlomi Barak and HWG Baker.</div><div class="small">Last Update: February 5, 2016.</div></li><li class="half_rhythm" id="toc_itm_NBK278943_toc_cryptorchid-hypospad"><a class="toc-item" href="/books/n/endotext/cryptorchid-hypospad/">Cryptorchidism and Hypospadias</a><div>John M. 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