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<meta name="robots" content="INDEX,NOFOLLOW,NOARCHIVE,NOIMAGEINDEX" /><meta name="citation_inbook_title" content="Neuroscience. 2nd edition" /><meta name="citation_title" content="Central Projections of Retinal Ganglion Cells" /><meta name="citation_publisher" content="Sinauer Associates" /><meta name="citation_date" content="2001" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Dale Purves" /><meta name="citation_author" content="George J Augustine" /><meta name="citation_author" content="David Fitzpatrick" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Lawrence C Katz" /><meta name="citation_author" content="Anthony-Samuel LaMantia" /><meta name="citation_author" content="James O McNamara" /><meta name="citation_author" content="S Mark Williams" /><meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11145/" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/DC/elements/1.0/" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="Central Projections of Retinal Ganglion Cells" /><meta name="DC.Type" content="Text" /><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="Sinauer Associates" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Dale Purves" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="George J Augustine" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="David Fitzpatrick" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Lawrence C Katz" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="Anthony-Samuel LaMantia" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="James O McNamara" /><meta name="DC.Contributor" content="S Mark Williams" /><meta name="DC.Date" content="2001" /><meta name="DC.Identifier" content="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11145/" /><meta name="description" content="Figure 12.1The retinal surface of the right eye, viewed with an ophthalmoscope. The optic disk is the region where the ganglion cell axons leave the retina to form the optic nerve; it is also characterized by the entrance and exit, respectively, of the ophthalmic arteries and veins that supply the retina. The macula lutea can be seen as a distinct area at the center of the optical axis (the optic disk lies nasally); the macula is the region of the retina that has the highest visual acuity. The fovea is a depression or pit about 1.5 mm in diameter that lies at the center of the macula (see Chapter 11). Ganglion cell axons exit the retina through a circular region in its nasal part called the optic disk (or optic papilla), where they bundle together to form the optic nerve. This region of the retina contains no photoreceptors and, because it is insensitive to light, produces the perceptual phenomenon known as the blind spot (Box A). The optic disk is easily identified as a whitish circular area when the retina is examined with an ophthalmoscope; it also is recognized as the site from which the ophthalmic artery and veins enter (or leave) the eye (Figure 12.1). In addition to being a conspicuous retinal landmark, the appearance of the optic disk is a useful gauge of intracranial pressure. The subarachnoid space surrounding the optic nerve is continuous with that of the brain; as a result, increases in intracranial pressure—a sign of serious neurological problems such as a space-occupying lesion—can be detected as a swelling of the optic disk (called papilledema)." /><meta name="bk-non-canon-loc" content="/books/n/neurosci/A816/" /><link rel="canonical" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11145/" /><link rel="stylesheet" href="/corehtml/pmc/css/figpopup.css" type="text/css" media="screen" /><link rel="stylesheet" href="/corehtml/pmc/css/bookshelf/2.26/css/books.min.css" type="text/css" /><link rel="stylesheet" href="/corehtml/pmc/css/bookshelf/2.26/css/books_print.min.css" type="text/css" media="print" /><style type="text/css">p a.figpopup{display:inline !important} .bk_tt {font-family: monospace} .first-line-outdent .bk_ref {display: inline} .body-content h2, .body-content .h2 {border-bottom: 1px solid #97B0C8} .body-content h2.inline {border-bottom: none} a.page-toc-label , .jig-ncbismoothscroll a {text-decoration:none;border:0 !important} .temp-labeled-list .graphic {display:inline-block !important} .temp-labeled-list img{width:100%}</style><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/jquery.hoverIntent.min.js"> </script><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/common.min.js?_=3.18"> </script><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/large-obj-scrollbars.min.js"> </script><script type="text/javascript">window.name="mainwindow";</script><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/bookshelf/2.26/book-toc.min.js"> </script><script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/js/bookshelf/2.26/books.min.js"> </script><meta name="book-collection" content="NONE" />
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<div class="pre-content"><div><div class="bk_prnt"><p class="small">NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.</p><p>Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, et al., editors. Neuroscience. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2001. </p></div><div class="messagearea bk_noprnt" style="margin-bottom:1.3846em "><ul class="messages"><li class="info icon"><span class="icon">By agreement with the publisher, this book is accessible by the search feature, but cannot be browsed.</span></li></ul></div><div class="iconblock clearfix whole_rhythm no_top_margin bk_noprnt"><a class="img_link icnblk_img" title="Table of Contents Page" href="/books/n/neurosci/"><img class="source-thumb" src="/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-neurosci-lrg.png" alt="Cover of Neuroscience" height="100px" width="80px" /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt eight_col"><h2>Neuroscience. 2nd edition.</h2><a data-jig="ncbitoggler" href="#__NBK11145_dtls__">Show details</a><div style="display:none" class="ui-widget" id="__NBK11145_dtls__"><div>Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, et al., editors.</div><div>Sunderland (MA): <a href="http://www.sinauer.com/" ref="pagearea=page-banner&targetsite=external&targetcat=link&targettype=publisher">Sinauer Associates</a>; 2001.</div></div><div class="half_rhythm"></div><div class="bk_noprnt"><form method="get" action="/books/n/neurosci/" id="bk_srch"><div class="bk_search"><label for="bk_term" class="offscreen_noflow">Search term</label><input type="text" title="Search this book" id="bk_term" name="term" value="" data-jig="ncbiclearbutton" /> <input type="submit" class="jig-ncbibutton" value="Search this book" submit="false" style="padding: 0.1em 0.4em;" /></div></form></div></div></div></div></div>
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<div class="main-content lit-style" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/CreativeWork"><div class="meta-content fm-sec"><h1 id="_NBK11145_"><span class="title" itemprop="name">Central Projections of Retinal Ganglion Cells</span></h1></div><div class="body-content whole_rhythm" itemprop="text"><p>
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Ganglion cell axons exit the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2826/">retina</a> through a circular region in its nasal part called the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2705/">optic disk</a> (or optic papilla), where they bundle together to form the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2706/">optic nerve</a>. This region of the retina contains no photoreceptors and, because it is insensitive to light, produces the perceptual phenomenon known as the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2310/">blind spot</a> (<a href="/books/NBK11145/box/A817/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA817">Box A</a>). The optic disk is easily identified as a whitish circular area when the retina is examined with an ophthalmoscope; it also is recognized as the site from which the ophthalmic artery and veins enter (or leave) the eye (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A818/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA818" rid-ob="figobA818">Figure 12.1</a>). In addition to being a conspicuous retinal landmark, the appearance of the optic disk is a useful gauge of intracranial pressure. The <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2895/">subarachnoid space</a> surrounding the optic nerve is continuous with that of the brain; as a result, increases in intracranial pressure—a sign of serious neurological problems such as a space-occupying lesion—can be detected as a swelling of the optic disk (called papilledema).</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col boxed-text" id="figA817"><a href="/books/NBK11145/box/A817/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Box A" class="img_link icnblk_img" rid-ob="figobA817"><img class="small-thumb" src="/corehtml/pmc/css/bookshelf/2.26/img/box-icon.gif" alt="Box Icon" /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt"><h4 id="A817"><a href="/books/NBK11145/box/A817/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA817">Box A</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">The Blind Spot. </p></div></div><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA818" co-legend-rid="figlgndA818"><a href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A818/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 12.1" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA818" rid-ob="figobA818"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11145/bin/ch12f1.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11145/bin/ch12f1.jpg" alt="Figure 12.1. The retinal surface of the right eye, viewed with an ophthalmoscope." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA818"><h4 id="A818"><a href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A818/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA818">Figure 12.1</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">The retinal surface of the right eye, viewed with an ophthalmoscope. The optic disk is the region where the ganglion cell axons leave the retina to form the optic nerve; it is also characterized by the entrance and exit, respectively, of the ophthalmic <a href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A818/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA818">(more...)</a></p></div></div><p>Axons in the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2706/">optic nerve</a> run a straight course to the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2703/">optic chiasm</a> at the base of the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2413/">diencephalon</a>. In humans, about 60% of these fibers cross in the chiasm, while the other 40% continue toward the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2922/">thalamus</a> and midbrain targets on the same side. Once past the chiasm, the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2491/">ganglion cell</a> axons on each side form the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2709/">optic tract</a>. Thus, the optic tract, unlike the optic nerve, contains fibers from <i>both</i> eyes. The partial crossing (or <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2401/">decussation</a>) of ganglion cell axons at the optic chiasm allows information from corresponding points on the two retinas to be processed by approximately the same cortical site in each hemisphere, an important issue that is considered in the next section.</p><p>The <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2491/">ganglion cell</a> axons in the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2709/">optic tract</a> reach a number of structures in the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2413/">diencephalon</a> and midbrain (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A825/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA825" rid-ob="figobA825">Figure 12.2</a>). The major target in the diencephalon is the <b><a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2421/">dorsal</a> <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2578/">lateral geniculate nucleus</a></b> of the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2922/">thalamus</a>. Neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus, like their counterparts in the thalamic relays of other <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2855/">sensory</a> systems, send their axons to the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2338/">cerebral cortex</a> via the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2555/">internal capsule</a>. These axons pass through a portion of the internal capsule called the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2707/">optic radiation</a> and terminate in the <b>primary visual</b> (or <b>striate</b>) cortex (also referred to as <b>Brodmann's area 17</b> or <b>V1</b>), which lies largely along and within the calcarine <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2477/">fissure</a> in the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2691/">occipital lobe</a>. The <b>retinogeniculostriate pathway</b>, or primary visual pathway, conveys information that is essential for most of what is thought of as seeing. Thus, damage anywhere along this route results in serious visual impairment.</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA825" co-legend-rid="figlgndA825"><a href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A825/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 12.2" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA825" rid-ob="figobA825"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11145/bin/ch12f2.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11145/bin/ch12f2.jpg" alt="Figure 12.2. Central projections of retinal ganglion cells." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA825"><h4 id="A825"><a href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A825/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA825">Figure 12.2</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">Central projections of retinal ganglion cells. Ganglion cell axons terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, the superior colliculus, the pretectum, and the hypothalamus. For clarity, only the crossing axons of the right eye are shown. <a href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A825/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA825">(more...)</a></p></div></div><p>A second major target of the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2491/">ganglion cell</a> axons is a collection of neurons that lies between the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2922/">thalamus</a> and the midbrain in a region known as the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2780/">pretectum</a>. Although small in size compared to the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2578/">lateral geniculate nucleus</a>, the pretectum is particularly important as the coordinating center for the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2805/">pupillary light reflex</a> (i.e., the reduction in the diameter of the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2804/">pupil</a> that occurs when sufficient light falls on the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2826/">retina</a>) (<a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A826/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA826" rid-ob="figobA826">Figure 12.3</a>). The initial component of the pupillary light reflex pathway is a bilateral projection from the retina to the pretectum. Pretectal neurons, in turn, project to the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2434/">Edinger-Westphal nucleus</a>, a small group of <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2658/">nerve</a> cells that lies close to the nucleus of the oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III) in the midbrain. The Edinger-Westphal nucleus contains the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2776/">preganglionic</a> parasympathetic neurons that send their axons via the oculomotor nerve to terminate on neurons in the ciliary ganglion (see Chapter 20). Neurons in the ciliary ganglion <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2544/">innervate</a> the constrictor muscle in the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2567/">iris</a>, which decreases the diameter of the pupil when activated. Shining light in the eye thus leads to an increase in the activity of pretectal neurons, which stimulates the Edinger-Westphal neurons and the ciliary ganglion neurons they innervate, thus constricting the pupil.</p><div class="iconblock whole_rhythm clearfix ten_col fig" id="figA826" co-legend-rid="figlgndA826"><a href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A826/?report=objectonly" target="object" title="Figure 12.3" class="img_link icnblk_img figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA826" rid-ob="figobA826"><img class="small-thumb" src="/books/NBK11145/bin/ch12f3.gif" src-large="/books/NBK11145/bin/ch12f3.jpg" alt="Figure 12.3. The circuitry responsible for the pupillary light reflex." /></a><div class="icnblk_cntnt" id="figlgndA826"><h4 id="A826"><a href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A826/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA826">Figure 12.3</a></h4><p class="float-caption no_bottom_margin">The circuitry responsible for the pupillary light reflex. This pathway includes bilateral projections from the retina to the pretectum and projections from the pretectum to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. Neurons in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus terminate <a href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A826/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-ob="figobA826">(more...)</a></p></div></div><p>In addition to its normal role in regulating the amount of light that enters the eye, the pupillary <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2819/">reflex</a> provides an important diagnostic tool that allows the physician to test the integrity of the visual <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2855/">sensory</a> apparatus, the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2639/">motor</a> outflow to the pupillary muscles, and the central pathways that mediate the reflex. Under normal conditions, the pupils of both eyes respond identically, regardless of which eye is stimulated; that is, light in one eye produces constriction of both the stimulated eye (the direct response) and the unstimulated eye (the consensual response; see <a class="figpopup" href="/books/NBK11145/figure/A826/?report=objectonly" target="object" rid-figpopup="figA826" rid-ob="figobA826">Figure 12.3</a>). Comparing the response in the two eyes is often helpful in localizing a lesion. For example, a direct response in the left eye without a consensual response in the right eye suggests a problem with the visceral motor outflow to the right eye, possibly damage to the oculomotor <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2658/">nerve</a> or <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2434/">Edinger-Westphal nucleus</a> in the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2315/">brainstem</a>. Failure to elicit a response (either direct or indirect) to stimulation of the left eye if both eyes respond normally to stimulation of the right eye suggests damage to the sensory <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2546/">input</a> from the left eye, possibly to the left <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2826/">retina</a> or <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2706/">optic nerve</a>.</p><p>There are two other important targets of retinal <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2491/">ganglion cell</a> axons. One is the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2902/">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a> of the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2535/">hypothalamus</a>, a small group of neurons at the base of the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2413/">diencephalon</a> (see <a href="/books/n/neurosci/A1961/figure/A1973/?report=objectonly" target="object" class="figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA1973" rid-ob="figobA1973">Figure 28.4</a>). The <b>retinohypothalamic pathway</b> is the route by which variation in light levels influences the broad spectrum of visceral functions that are entrained to the day/night cycle (see Chapters 21 and 28). The other target is the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2901/">superior colliculus</a>, a prominent structure visible on the <a class="def" href="/books/n/neurosci/A2251/def-item/A2421/">dorsal</a> surface of the midbrain (see <a href="/books/n/neurosci/A75/figure/A76/?report=objectonly" target="object" class="figpopup" rid-figpopup="figA76" rid-ob="figobA76">Figure 1.14</a>). The superior colliculus coordinates head and eye movements; its functions are considered in Chapter 20.</p><div style="display:none"><div id="figA1973"><img alt="Image ch28f4" src-large="/books/n/neurosci/A1961/bin/ch28f4.jpg" /></div><div id="figA76"><img alt="Image ch1f14" src-large="/books/n/neurosci/A75/bin/ch1f14.jpg" /></div></div></div></div>
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<div class="post-content"><div><p>By agreement with the publisher, this book is accessible by the search feature, but cannot be browsed.</p><div class="half_rhythm"><a href="/books/about/copyright/">Copyright</a> © 2001, Sinauer Associates, Inc.</div><div class="small"><span class="label">Bookshelf ID: NBK11145</span></div></div></div>
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