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{"id":4682,"date":"2014-09-16T15:00:50","date_gmt":"2014-09-16T19:00:50","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/?p=4682"},"modified":"2022-07-11T12:47:46","modified_gmt":"2022-07-11T16:47:46","slug":"preserving-nirenbergs-genetic-code-chart","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/2014\/09\/16\/preserving-nirenbergs-genetic-code-chart\/","title":{"rendered":"Preserving Nirenberg’s Genetic Code Chart"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><em>By Kristi Wright and Holly Herro<br \/>\n<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The National Library of Medicine is home to a series of very important documents in scientific history\u2014Marshall Nirenberg\u2019s Genetic Code Charts. The charts contain original, handwritten data from experiments that determined how protein sequence was dictated by the sequence of precursor ribonucleic acids (RNAs). Conservators at NLM have been <a title=\"NLM's Circulating Now\" href=\"http:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/2014\/01\/17\/protecting-the-past-a-study-of-acetic-acid-offgassing\/\">studying the charts<\/a> to determine the best methods of preserving them for the future.<\/p>\n<p>The <a title=\"NLM's Profiles in Science\" href=\"http:\/\/profiles.nlm.nih.gov\/ps\/retrieve\/Narrative\/SC\/p-nid\/143\">famous 1953 discovery<\/a> of DNA\u2019s double-helix structure, which incorporated the work of James D. Watson, <a title=\"NLM's Profiles in Science\" href=\"https:\/\/profiles.nlm.nih.gov\/spotlight\/sc\">Francis Crick<\/a>, Maurice Wilkins, and <a title=\"NLM's Profiles in Science\" href=\"https:\/\/profiles.nlm.nih.gov\/spotlight\/kr\">Rosalind Franklin<\/a>, was a major breakthrough in genetic research, but it was just the start of our understanding of DNA. What was not known then was <a title=\"NLM's Profiles in Science\" href=\"http:\/\/profiles.nlm.nih.gov\/ps\/retrieve\/Narrative\/JJ\/p-nid\/23\">nature’s genetic code<\/a>; how a DNA sequence is translated into an RNA sequence that is in turn translated into a protein sequence. By 1965, <a title=\"NLM's Profies in Science\" href=\"https:\/\/profiles.nlm.nih.gov\/spotlight\/jj\/feature\/biographical\">Marshall Nirenberg<\/a>, with help from his colleagues at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), had become the first to complete the sequencing of the code. The language of protein synthesis was understood, painstakingly worked out and recorded in <a title=\"NLM's Profiles in Science\" href=\"https:\/\/profiles.nlm.nih.gov\/101584910X471\">these charts<\/a>. As a result Nirenberg was awarded the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_3022\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3022\" style=\"width: 650px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/01\/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-attachment-id=\"3022\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/2014\/01\/17\/protecting-the-past-a-study-of-acetic-acid-offgassing\/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/01\/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg?fit=1600%2C1584&ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"1600,1584\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"Copyright (C) reserved","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}\" data-image-title=\"Nirenberg Chart\" data-image-description=\"<p>By 1966, Nirenberg announced that he had deciphered the 64 RNA codons for all 20 amino acids. This chart from 1965 lists the correspondence between these codons and amino acids.<br \/>\nJJBCCW<\/p>\n\" data-image-caption=\"<p>Nirenberg’s handwritten genetic code chart, 1965.<br \/>\nhttp:\/\/profiles.nlm.nih.gov\/ps\/retrieve\/ResourceMetadata\/JJBCCW<\/p>\n\" data-medium-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/01\/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg?fit=300%2C297&ssl=1\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/01\/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg?fit=840%2C832&ssl=1\" class=\"wp-image-3022 size-large\" style=\"border: 2px solid #000000;\" title=\"Marshall Nirenberg's Genetic Code Chart\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/01\/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg?resize=650%2C643\" alt=\"A large paper chart constructed of serveral pages taped together, handwritten in several colors of ink.\" width=\"650\" height=\"643\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-3022\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nirenberg’s handwritten genetic code chart, 1965.<br \/><a title=\"NLM's Profiles in Science\" href=\"https:\/\/profiles.nlm.nih.gov\/101584910X475\">Profiles in Science<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Nirenberg charts consist of multiple sheets of 1950s Addison Wesley lined paper which has been joined with pressure sensitive tape. The tape is in poor condition, but it is an important part of the charts because Nirenberg and his lab technicians wrote on top of it. The writing was done in pencil, India ink, and ballpoint pen ink. The need to address the deteriorating state of the ballpoint pen ink on these unique documents became a driving force behind the most recent phase of our ongoing ballpoint pen ink research in the NLM conservation lab, in this case focusing on ideal rehousing methods.<\/p>\n<p>In order to determine the correct housing for the Nirenberg charts, we first determined what type of pens were used. Norma Heaton, one of Dr. Nirenberg\u2019s original lab technicians, told us that the genetic code charts were written with Skilcraft ballpoint pens. Next, we did some testing and researched the history of the Skilcraft pen ink and found the ink formula had not changed in forty some years. Then, we used a technique we\u2019ve recently developed in-house called Photoshop Assisted Spectroscopy for the examination of different lighting and storage environments on this type of ballpoint pen ink. We set up a series of mock documents in a variety of enclosure types and exposed them to different lighting conditions for a period of three months. Before, during, and after the exposure period, we took scans of the documents and performed Photoshop Assisted Spectroscopy to see if and how the color of the ink had shifted.<\/p>\n<div class=\"tiled-gallery type-rectangular tiled-gallery-unresized\" data-original-width=\"840\" data-carousel-extra='{"blog_id":1,"permalink":"https:\\\/\\\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\\\/2014\\\/09\\\/16\\\/preserving-nirenbergs-genetic-code-chart\\\/","likes_blog_id":"52242398"}' itemscope itemtype=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/ImageGallery\" > <div class=\"gallery-row\" style=\"width: 840px; height: 423px;\" data-original-width=\"840\" data-original-height=\"423\" > <div class=\"gallery-group images-1\" style=\"width: 252px; height: 423px;\" data-original-width=\"252\" data-original-height=\"423\" > <div class=\"tiled-gallery-item tiled-gallery-item-small\" itemprop=\"associatedMedia\" itemscope itemtype=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/ImageObject\"> <a href=\"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/test_subjects_001-2\/\" border=\"0\" itemprop=\"url\"> <meta itemprop=\"width\" content=\"248\"> <meta itemprop=\"height\" content=\"419\"> <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" data-attachment-id=\"4739\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/test_subjects_0011.jpg\" data-orig-size=\"709,1200\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}\" data-image-title=\"Test_Subjects_001\" data-image-description=\"\" data-medium-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/test_subjects_0011.jpg?fit=177%2C300&ssl=1\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/test_subjects_0011.jpg?fit=605%2C1024&ssl=1\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/test_subjects_0011.jpg?w=248&h=419&ssl=1\" width=\"248\" height=\"419\" loading=\"lazy\" data-original-width=\"248\" data-original-height=\"419\" itemprop=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/image\" title=\"Test_Subjects_001\" alt=\"Pairs of slips of paper used to test ballpoint pen ink under exposure to different conditions.\" style=\"width: 248px; height: 419px;\" \/> <\/a> <div class=\"tiled-gallery-caption\" itemprop=\"caption description\"> A series of mock documents exposed to different lighting conditions. <\/div> <\/div> <\/div> <!-- close group --> <div class=\"gallery-group images-1\" style=\"width: 588px; height: 423px;\" data-original-width=\"588\" data-original-height=\"423\" > <div class=\"tiled-gallery-item tiled-gallery-item-large\" itemprop=\"associatedMedia\" itemscope itemtype=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/ImageObject\"> <a href=\"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/2014\/09\/16\/preserving-nirenbergs-genetic-code-chart\/screenshot-blue\/\" border=\"0\" itemprop=\"url\"> <meta itemprop=\"width\" content=\"584\"> <meta itemprop=\"height\" content=\"419\"> <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" data-attachment-id=\"4714\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/screenshot-blue.jpg\" data-orig-size=\"903,648\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}\" data-image-title=\"screenshot-blue\" data-image-description=\"\" data-medium-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/screenshot-blue.jpg?fit=300%2C215&ssl=1\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/screenshot-blue.jpg?fit=840%2C603&ssl=1\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/screenshot-blue.jpg?w=584&h=419&ssl=1\" width=\"584\" height=\"419\" loading=\"lazy\" data-original-width=\"584\" data-original-height=\"419\" itemprop=\"http:\/\/schema.org\/image\" title=\"screenshot-blue\" alt=\"Screen shot showing photoshop tools reading color values on a digitized document.\" style=\"width: 584px; height: 419px;\" \/> <\/a> <div class=\"tiled-gallery-caption\" itemprop=\"caption description\"> Reading the color values of a digitized document with Photoshop. <\/div> <\/div> <\/div> <!-- close group --> <\/div> <!-- close row --> <\/div>\n<p>Photoshop Assisted Spectroscopy is a technique to track color shift, which is a good indicator of deterioration in ink. Color shift is a change in the ratio of red, green, and blue (RGB) values in the color of a substance and occurs when the chemistry of a material, in this case of the ballpoint ink, changes over time and through reaction with it’s environment. To perform the technique, the document must first be digitized using equipment calibrated for color accuracy. The technique uses the \u2018info\u2019 window in Photoshop to retrieve the RGB values of individual pixels. By recording a series of these values, we are able to note the color of a document section at the start of the experiment. Later, a new scan is taken and the values for that section recorded again. The values from both scans are plotted on a 3D graph with the X, Y, and Z axes corresponding to each RGB value. Graphing in this manner allows the direction of any color shift across the collected data points to easily be seen.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4715\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4715\" style=\"width: 650px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/4-ink-6-blue.jpg?ssl=1\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" data-attachment-id=\"4715\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/2014\/09\/16\/preserving-nirenbergs-genetic-code-chart\/4-ink-6-blue\/\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/4-ink-6-blue.jpg?fit=791%2C716&ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"791,716\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}\" data-image-title=\"4-Ink-6-Blue\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"<p>Values from before and after the test period are plotted on a 3D graph. X, Y, and Z axes corresponding to each RGB (Red Green Blue) value respectively. Graphing in this manner allows the direction of any color shift across the collected data points to easily be seen.<\/p>\n\" data-medium-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/4-ink-6-blue.jpg?fit=300%2C272&ssl=1\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/4-ink-6-blue.jpg?fit=791%2C716&ssl=1\" class=\"wp-image-4715 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/4-ink-6-blue.jpg?resize=650%2C588\" alt=\"A graph demonstrating a shift in value along the Z, or blue axis.\" width=\"650\" height=\"588\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4715\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Values from before and after a test period are plotted on a 3D graph with X, Y, and Z axes corresponding to each red, green, and blue\u00a0 (RGB) value respectively. This allows the direction of any color shift across the collected data points to easily be seen.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>As a result of this study, we\u2019ve determined that anoxic (oxygen-free) environments are ideal for documents written with blue and black Skilcraft brand ballpoint pens. We have therefore chosen to store the charts in an anoxic environment and, because we have the initial scans to create a starting point, we can monitor the charts long term as a preventive method to detect any color shift while they are housed in their enclosures.\u00a0 We will also be working with the NIH Mechanical Design and Fabrication section to build an attachment that will allow us to monitor the environment inside the frames with existing equipment and ensure that the enclosures remain anoxic over time. Each frame will create a sealed microenvironment for the enclosed document, so while people will easily be able to view the charts, they will be protected against the damaging factors associated with a normal air environment and preserved for new generations of researchers.<\/p>\n<p><em>This article is part of a <a title=\"NLM's Circulating Now\" href=\"http:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/category\/series\/deciphering-the-genetic-code\/\">series <\/a>that commemorates the 50th anniversary of the Genetic Code Charts.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><i>Kristi Wright is a contract conservator <em>for the Conservation Program of the History of Medicine Division at the National Library of Medicine and principal of Wright Conservation and Framing.<\/em><br \/>\n<\/i><\/p>\n<p><em>Holly Herro is Conservation Librarian for the History of Medicine Division at the National Library of Medicine.<\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>By Kristi Wright and Holly Herro The National Library of Medicine is home to a series of very important documents<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":19605840,"featured_media":4712,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_coblocks_attr":"","_coblocks_dimensions":"","_coblocks_responsive_height":"","_coblocks_accordion_ie_support":"","advanced_seo_description":"","jetpack_seo_html_title":"","jetpack_seo_noindex":false,"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"Preserving Nirenberg's Genetic Code Chart: Learn about a new digital technique NLM is using to study manuscripts. http:\/\/wp.me\/p3xcDk-1dw","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":false,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","enabled":false},"version":2}},"categories":[42333869,12763,321229776,103],"tags":[23993,106484,27135,517998,56024540,3345,668],"class_list":["post-4682","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-archives-manuscripts","category-collections","category-deciphering-the-genetic-code","category-news","tag-conservation","tag-digitization","tag-dna","tag-manuscript","tag-marshall-nirenberg","tag-preservation","tag-research"],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/jjbccw__feature.jpg?fit=934%2C360&ssl=1","jetpack_likes_enabled":true,"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p3xcDk-1dw","jetpack-related-posts":[],"amp_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4682","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/19605840"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4682"}],"version-history":[{"count":27,"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4682\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":24387,"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4682\/revisions\/24387"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/4712"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4682"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=4682"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=4682"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}} |