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<select id="email-citation-format" name="citation-format" class="action-panel-selector email-citation-format">
<option selected="selected" value="summary">Summary</option>
<option value="summary-text">Summary (text)</option>
<option value="abstract">Abstract</option>
<option value="abstract-text">Abstract (text)</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="include-supplemental-container">
<input type="checkbox" aria-label="Include MeSH and other data" name="include-supplemental" id="email-include-supplemental" class="email-include-supplemental">
<label for="email-include-supplemental" class="email-include-supplemental-label">MeSH and other data</label>
</div>
<div class="form-field recaptcha ">
<div class="g-recaptcha" id="id-recaptcha" data-sitekey="6LfsWHMdAAAAAClKbtOpjQ2pMjgsGxvv7NdZW9uI"></div>
</div>
<div id="captcha-error-message" class="usa-input-error-message captcha-validation-message" role="alert"></div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Sending..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="email"
data-ga-label="send">
Send email
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Email citations' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_email_panel"
aria-controls="email-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="email"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="email-search-details" value="" />
<input type="hidden" name="email-search-details-hash" value="0e42663a6c3bd85498fcb88798998fed7bfdc45d457db35281e41afe13cc0524" />
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="collections-action-panel"
class="collections-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel"
aria-hidden="true"
data-collections-open-panel-enabled="false"
data-collections-open-panel-url-hash="#open-collections-panel">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h3 class="action-panel-heading">
Add to Collections
</h3>
<form id="collections-action-panel-form"
class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors"
data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/"
data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/"
data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/"
data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/"
data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100"
data-add-to-collection-max-amount="1000"
data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="YHdaVO5ps3jhhQbqyz8KXllFNioFh88IfuXfyEyL2E6LbhhgbSLMrtRjlm6RaJG2">
<div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup">
<ul class="radio-group-items">
<li>
<input type="radio"
id="collections-action-panel-new"
class="collections-new"
name="collections"
value="new"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_new">
<label for="collections-action-panel-new">Create a new collection</label>
</li>
<li>
<input type="radio"
id="collections-action-panel-existing"
class="collections-existing"
name="collections"
value="existing"
checked="true"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing">
<label for="collections-action-panel-existing">Add to an existing collection</label>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="controls-wrapper">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls">
<label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Name your collection:
</label>
<input
type="text"
name="add-to-new-collection"
id="collections-action-panel-add-to-new"
class="collections-action-add-to-new"
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/"
maxlength="100"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="create_collection"
data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection">
<div class="collections-new-name-too-long usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Name must be less than 100 characters
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls">
<label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label">
Choose a collection:
</label>
<select id="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing"
class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="select_collection"
data-ga-label="($('#collections-action-add-to-existing').val() === 'Favorites') ? 'Favorites' : 'non_favorites_collection'">
</select>
<div class="collections-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Unable to load your collection due to an error<br>
<a href="#">Please try again</a>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Adding..."
data-pinger-ignore
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="add">
Add
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Add to Collections' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_collections_panel"
aria-controls="collections-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="bibliography-action-panel"
class="bibliography-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel"
aria-hidden="true"
data-bibliography-open-panel-enabled="false"
data-bibliography-open-panel-url-hash="#open-bibliography-panel">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h3 class="action-panel-heading">
Add to My Bibliography
</h3>
<form id="bibliography-action-panel-form"
class="bibliography-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors"
data-add-to-bibliography-max-amount="100"
data-add-to-bibliography-batch-size="10"
data-bibliography-delegates-url="/list-bibliography-delegates/"
data-add-to-bibliography-url="/add-to-bibliography/"
data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/"
data-mybib-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/mybibliography/">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="YHdaVO5ps3jhhQbqyz8KXllFNioFh88IfuXfyEyL2E6LbhhgbSLMrtRjlm6RaJG2">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap bibliographies-controls">
<div class="choice-group">
<ul class="bibliographies-action-add radio-group-items">
<li>
<input name="bibliography" id="my-bibliography" class="my-bibliography" type="radio" checked/>
<label for="my-bibliography">My Bibliography</label>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="bibliographies-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Unable to load your delegates due to an error<br>
<a href="#">Please try again</a>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Adding..."
data-pinger-ignore>
Add
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Add to bibliography' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_bibliography_panel"
aria-controls="bibliography-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="mybib"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="saved-search-action-panel" class="saved-search-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true"
data-saved-search-open-panel-enabled="false"
data-saved-search-open-panel-url-hash="#open-saved-search-panel">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h2 class="action-panel-heading">
Your saved search
</h2>
<form id="saved-search-action-panel-form"
class="saved-search-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form"
data-create-saved-search-url="/create-saved-search/"
data-try-search-terms-url="/try-search-term/"
data-saved-search-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/searches/">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="YHdaVO5ps3jhhQbqyz8KXllFNioFh88IfuXfyEyL2E6LbhhgbSLMrtRjlm6RaJG2">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-name" class="action-panel-label saved-search-name-label required-field-asterisk">
Name of saved search:
</label>
<input maxlength="200"
type="text"
name="saved-search-name"
id="saved-search-name"
class="saved-search-name"
value=""
required
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/">
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-term" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Search terms:
</label>
<textarea name="saved-search-term" id="saved-search-term" class="saved-search-term" required></textarea>
</div>
<div class="test-search-term-wrap">
<a href="#" class="try-search-term">Test search terms</a>
</div>
<div class="choice-group action-panel-extra-margin-top">
<span class="action-panel-label" id="fieldset-label">
Would you like email updates of new search results?
</span>
<fieldset id="saved-search-alert" aria-describedby="fieldset-label">
<legend class="usa-sr-only">Saved Search Alert Radio Buttons</legend>
<ul class="radio-group-items">
<li>
<input type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-yes" class="saved-search-alert-yes" name="saved-search-alert" value="yes" checked>
<label for="saved-search-alert-yes" class="action-panel-label">Yes</label>
</li>
<li>
<input aria-label="No radio input" type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-no" class="saved-search-alert-no" name="saved-search-alert" value="no">
<label for="saved-search-alert-no" class="action-panel-label">No</label>
</li>
</ul>
</fieldset>
</div>
<div class="alert-schedule-wrap">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label class="action-panel-label">
Email:
</label>
<span aria-label="Email address" id="saved-search-email" class="action-panel-label"><span class="action-panel-label-bold"></span> (<a class="myncbi-account-settings" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/settings/">change</a>)</span>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top">
<label for="saved-search-frequency" class="action-panel-label">
Frequency:
</label>
<select id="saved-search-frequency" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-frequency">
<option value="monthly">Monthly</option>
<option value="weekly">Weekly</option>
<option value="daily">Daily</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-monthly-additional">
<label for="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="action-panel-label">
Which day?
</label>
<select id="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector">
<option value="Sunday">The first Sunday</option>
<option value="Monday">The first Monday</option>
<option value="Tuesday">The first Tuesday</option>
<option value="Wednesday">The first Wednesday</option>
<option value="Thursday">The first Thursday</option>
<option value="Friday">The first Friday</option>
<option value="Saturday">The first Saturday</option>
<option value="day">The first day</option>
<option value="weekday">The first weekday</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-weekly-additional">
<label for="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="action-panel-label">
Which day?
</label>
<select id="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-weekly-on-day">
<option value="Sunday">Sunday</option>
<option value="Monday">Monday</option>
<option value="Tuesday">Tuesday</option>
<option value="Wednesday">Wednesday</option>
<option value="Thursday">Thursday</option>
<option value="Friday">Friday</option>
<option value="Saturday">Saturday</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-report" class="action-panel-label">
Report format:
</label>
<select id="saved-search-report" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-report">
<option value="DocSum">Summary</option>
<option value="DocSumText">Summary (text)</option>
<option value="Abstract">Abstract</option>
<option value="AbstractText">Abstract (text)</option>
<option value="MEDLINE">PubMed</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-amount" class="action-panel-label">
Send at most:
</label>
<select id="saved-search-amount" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-amount">
<option value="1">1 item</option>
<option value="5" selected>5 items</option>
<option value="10">10 items</option>
<option value="20">20 items</option>
<option value="50">50 items</option>
<option value="100">100 items</option>
<option value="200">200 items</option>
</select>
</div>
<div>
<input type="checkbox" id="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="saved-search-send-if-no-result" name="saved-search-send-if-no-result">
<label for="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="action-panel-label smaller-checkbox">
Send even when there aren't any new results
</label>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap option-text-in-email-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-email-text" class="action-panel-label">
Optional text in email:
</label>
<textarea name="saved-search-email-text"
id="saved-search-email-text"
class="saved-search-email-text"></textarea>
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Saving..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="save">
Save
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Your saved search' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_saved_search_panel"
aria-controls="saved-search-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="citation-manager-action-panel" class="citation-manager-action-panel action-panel" aria-hidden="true">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h2 class="action-panel-heading">
Create a file for external citation management software
</h2>
<form id="citation-manager-action-panel-form"
class="action-panel-content action-form"
action="/results-export-ids/"
data-by-search-action="/results-export-search-data/"
data-by-ids-action="/results-export-ids/"
method="post"
data-by-search-method="post"
data-by-ids-method="post">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="YHdaVO5ps3jhhQbqyz8KXllFNioFh88IfuXfyEyL2E6LbhhgbSLMrtRjlm6RaJG2">
<input name="results-format" type="hidden" value="pubmed"/>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Sending..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="citation_manager"
data-ga-label="save">
Create file
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Send citations to citation manager' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_citation_manager_panel"
aria-controls="citation-manager-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="citation_manager"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="rss-action-panel" class="rss-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h2 class="action-panel-heading">
Your RSS Feed
</h2>
<form id="rss-action-panel-form"
class="rss-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form"
data-create-rss-feed-url="/create-rss-feed-url/"
data-search-form-term-value="">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="YHdaVO5ps3jhhQbqyz8KXllFNioFh88IfuXfyEyL2E6LbhhgbSLMrtRjlm6RaJG2">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="rss-name" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Name of RSS Feed:
</label>
<input maxlength="200"
placeholder="Name"
type="text"
name="rss-name"
id="rss-name"
class="rss-name"
value=''
required
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/">
</div>
<div class="rss-limit-wrap">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top">
<label for="rss-limit" class="action-panel-label">
Number of items displayed:
</label>
<select id="rss-limit" class="no-border-panel-selector rss-limit">
<option value="5">5</option>
<option value="10">10</option>
<option value="15" selected="selected">15</option>
<option value="20">20</option>
<option value="50">50</option>
<option value="100">100</option>
</select>
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Creating..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="save">
Create RSS
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Your RSS' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_rss_panel"
aria-controls="rss-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap rss-link-copy-wrap">
<label for="rss-link" class="usa-sr-only">RSS Link</label>
<input placeholder="Your RSS Feed Link" type="text" name="rss-link" id="rss-link" class="rss-link" title="RSS Link">
<button
type="button"
disabled
class="rss-link-copy-button disabled"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="rss"
data-ga-label="copy">
Copy
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="article-page" id="article-page" data-article-pmid="36304461">
<aside class="page-sidebar">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<div class="full-text-links">
<div class="full-view">
<h3 class="title">
Full text links
</h3>
<div class="full-text-links-list">
<a class="link-item
dialog-focus"
href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.970725"
target="_blank"
rel="noopener"
ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&amp;is_pmc=False&amp;PrId=6956&amp;itool=Abstract-def&amp;log$=linkouticon&amp;uid=36304461&amp;db=pubmed&amp;nlmid=101560960"
title="See full text options at Frontiers Media SA"
data-ga-category="full_text"
data-ga-action="Frontiers Media SA"
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><img src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corehtml/query/egifs/https:--www.frontiersin.org-alerts-logo-PubMed.png" alt="Frontiers Media SA full text link"><span class="text">
Frontiers Media SA
</span></a><a class="link-item
pmc
"
href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/pmid/36304461/"
target="_blank"
rel="noopener"
ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&amp;is_pmc=True&amp;PrId=3494&amp;itool=Abstract-def&amp;log$=linkouticon&amp;uid=36304461&amp;db=pubmed&amp;nlmid=101560960"
title="Free full text at PubMed Central"
data-ga-category="full_text"
data-ga-action="PMC"
data-ga-label="36304461"
><span class="text">
Free PMC article
</span></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="short-view">
<a href="#" class="full-text-links-button full-text-links-dialog-trigger">
Full text links
</a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="actions-buttons sidebar"><h3 class="title">Actions</h3><div class="inner-wrap"><button class="citation-button citation-dialog-trigger"
aria-label="Open dialog with citation text in different styles"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="cite"
data-ga-label="open"
data-all-citations-url="/36304461/citations/"
data-citation-style="nlm"
data-pubmed-format-link="/36304461/export/"><span class="button-label">Cite</span></button><link type="text/css" href="ncbi-overlay-block/src/overlay-block.css"><div class="collections-button-container" data-article-id="36304461" data-article-db="pubmed"><button class="collections-button collections-dialog-trigger"
aria-label="Save article in MyNCBI collections."
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="click"
data-ga-label="collections_button"
data-collections-open-dialog-enabled="false"
data-collections-open-dialog-url="https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F36304461%2F%23open-collections-dialog"
data-in-collections="false"><span class="button-label">Collections</span></button><div class="overlay" role="dialog"><div id="collections-action-dialog"
class="dialog collections-dialog"
aria-hidden="true"><div class="title">Add to Collections</div><div class="collections-action-panel action-panel"><form id="collections-action-dialog-form"
class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors"
data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/"
data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/"
data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/"
data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100"
data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/"><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="YHdaVO5ps3jhhQbqyz8KXllFNioFh88IfuXfyEyL2E6LbhhgbSLMrtRjlm6RaJG2"><div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup"><ul class="radio-group-items"><li><input type="radio"
id="collections-action-dialog-new"
class="collections-new"
name="collections"
value="new"
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="click"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_new"><label for="collections-action-dialog-new">Create a new collection</label></li><li><input type="radio"
id="collections-action-dialog-existing"
class="collections-existing"
name="collections"
value="existing"
checked="true"
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="click"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing"><label for="collections-action-dialog-existing">Add to an existing collection</label></li></ul></div><div class="controls-wrapper"><div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls"><label for="collections-action-dialog-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Name your collection:
</label><input
type="text"
name="add-to-new-collection"
id="collections-action-dialog-add-to-new"
class="collections-action-add-to-new"
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/"
maxlength="100"
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="create_collection"
data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection"><div class="collections-new-name-too-long usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Name must be less than 100 characters
</div></div><div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls"><label for="collections-action-dialog-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label">
Choose a collection:
</label><select id="collections-action-dialog-add-to-existing"
class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing"
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data-ga-label="Lauren Zavan">Lauren Zavan</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator">&nbsp;</span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Department of Microbiology, Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia." href="#short-view-affiliation-1" ref="linksrc=author_aff">
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data-ga-label="Neil O&#x27;Brien-Simpson">Neil O&#x27;Brien-Simpson</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator">&nbsp;</span><a class="affiliation-link" title="ACTV Research Group, Centre for Oral Health Research, Royal Dental Hospital, Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia." href="#short-view-affiliation-3" ref="linksrc=author_aff">
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><sup class="key">1</sup> Department of Microbiology, Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.</li>
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><sup class="key">2</sup> Research Centre for Extracellular Vesicles, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.</li>
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><sup class="key">3</sup> ACTV Research Group, Centre for Oral Health Research, Royal Dental Hospital, Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.</li>
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><sup class="key">4</sup> Department of Biochemistry and Chemistry, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.</li>
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><sup class="key">5</sup> Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.</li>
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The release of bacterial membrane vesicles (BMVs) has become recognized as a key mechanism used by both pathogenic and commensal bacteria to activate innate immune responses in the host and mediate immunity. Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) produced by Gram-negative bacteria can harbor various immunogenic cargo that includes proteins, nucleic acids and peptidoglycan, and the composition of OMVs strongly influences their ability to activate host innate immune receptors. Although various Gram-negative pathogens can produce OMVs that are enriched in immunogenic cargo compared to their parent bacteria, the ability of OMVs produced by commensal organisms to be enriched with immunostimulatory contents is only recently becoming known. In this study, we investigated the cargo associated with OMVs produced by the intestinal commensal <i>Bacteroides fragilis</i> and determined their ability to activate host innate immune receptors. Analysis of <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs revealed that they packaged various biological cargo including proteins, DNA, RNA, lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and peptidoglycan, and that this cargo could be enriched in OMVs compared to their parent bacteria. We visualized the entry of <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs into intestinal epithelial cells, in addition to the ability of <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs to transport bacterial RNA and peptidoglycan cargo into Caco-2 epithelial cells. Using HEK-Blue reporter cell lines, we identified that <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs could activate host Toll-like receptors (TLR)-2, TLR4, TLR7 and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 1 (NOD1), whereas <i>B. fragilis</i> bacteria could only induce the activation of TLR2. Overall, our data demonstrates that <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs activate a broader range of host innate immune receptors compared to their parent bacteria due to their enrichment of biological cargo and their ability to transport this cargo directly into host epithelial cells. These findings indicate that the secretion of OMVs by <i>B. fragilis</i> may facilitate immune crosstalk with host epithelial cells at the gastrointestinal surface and suggests that OMVs produced by commensal bacteria may preferentially activate host innate immune receptors at the mucosal gastrointestinal tract.
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Keywords:
</strong>
Bacteroides fragilis; Commensals; NOD1; TLRs; bacterial membrane vesicles; epithelial cells; innate immunity; outer membrane vesicles (OMVs).
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Copyright © 2022 Gilmore, Johnston, Bitto, Zavan, O'Brien-Simpson, Hill and Kaparakis-Liaskos.
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<p xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:p1="http://pubmed.gov/pub-one">The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.</p>
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<p> Figure 1 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B fragilis </i> OMVs are heterogenous…</div>
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<p> Figure 1 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B fragilis </i> OMVs are heterogenous in size and morphology, and harbour protein, DNA,…</div>
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Figure 1
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i>B fragilis</i> OMVs are heterogenous in size and morphology, and harbour protein, DNA, RNA, peptidoglycan and LPS cargo. <b>(A)</b> Purified <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs were visualized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). OMVs are indicated by black arrows. Images are representative of three biological replicates (Scale bar = 100 nm). <b>(B)</b> The size distribution of <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs was determined using ZetaView Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis. Data shows the mean (black line) ± SEM (red error bars) of three biological replicates. <b>(C)</b> Quantification of OMV-associated protein, per 10<sup>9</sup>
<i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs, using Qubit fluorometric analysis. Data shows the mean ± SEM of three biological replicates. <b>(D)</b> Quantification of DNA associated with DNase-treated (+) or non-treated (-) <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs using Qubit fluorometric analysis. <i>B. fragilis</i> genomic DNA (Genomic DNA control), either treated with DNase (+) or non-treated (-), was used as a control for DNase activity. Shown is the mean ± SEM of three biological replicates. ns, not significant, ***p &lt; 0.001 (unpaired <i>t-</i>test). <b>(E)</b> Quantification of RNA associated with RNase-treated (+) or non-treated (-) <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs using Qubit fluorometric analysis. <i>B. fragilis</i> bacterial RNA (Bacterial RNA control), either treated with RNase (+) or not-treated (-), was used as a control for RNase activity. Shown is the mean ± SEM of three biological replicates. ns, not significant, ***p &lt; 0.001 (unpaired <i>t-</i>test). <b>(F)</b> Quantification of the peptidoglycan cargo associated with 10<sup>9</sup>
<i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs. Shown is the mean ± SEM of three biological replicates. <b>(G)</b> LPS associated with 10<sup>9</sup>
<i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs was quantified using the Pierce™ Chromogenic Endotoxin Quant kit. Data represents the mean ± SEM of three biological replicates.</div>
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<p> Figure 2 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B. fragilis </i> OMVs are enriched…</div>
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<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Figure 2 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B. fragilis </i> OMVs are enriched in protein, peptidoglycan and LPS cargo compared to…</div>
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Figure 2
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs are enriched in protein, peptidoglycan and LPS cargo compared to their parent bacteria. <b>(A)</b>
<i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs (10 μg) and <i>B. fragilis</i> bacteria (10 μg) were separated using SDS-PAGE and their protein cargo was stained using Sypro Ruby. Data is representative of three biological replicates. <b>(B)</b> The presence of peptidoglycan cargo associated with <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs (10 μg) and <i>B. fragilis</i> bacteria (10 μg) was detected using Western immunoblot using an anti-peptidoglycan antibody. Peptidoglycan was used as a positive control (Pos control). Data shows three biological samples of <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs and <i>B. fragilis</i> bacteria and is representative of three experiments. <b>(C)</b>
<i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs and <i>B. fragilis</i> bacteria were treated with Proteinase K (P.K) (+) or not treated as controls (-), and their LPS cargo was detected by staining with ProQ Emerald 300 LPS stain. <b>(D)</b> ProQ Emerald-stained SDS-PAGE gels were counterstained with the protein-specific stain Sypro Ruby. Data in panel C and D represents three independent biological samples of <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs and <i>B. fragilis</i> bacteria and is representative of three independent experiments. In all panels <b>(AD)</b>, black arrows represent cargo that is enriched in OMVs compared to bacteria, stars represent cargo that is less abundant in OMVs compared to bacteria.</div>
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<p> Figure 3 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B. fragilis </i> OMVs activate TLR2…</div>
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<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Figure 3 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B. fragilis </i> OMVs activate TLR2 and TLR4 compared to their parent bacteria which…</div>
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Figure 3
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs activate TLR2 and TLR4 compared to their parent bacteria which only activate TLR2. <b>(A, B)</b> TLR2 and <b>(C, D)</b> TLR4 expressing HEK-Blue cells were stimulated with either <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs (<b>A</b>, <b>C</b>, squares) or <i>B fragilis</i> bacteria (<b>B</b>, <b>D</b>, circles) at an increasing multiplicity of infection (MOI) for 18 hours. In all panels, open triangles indicate stimulation of the HEK-Blue null cell line with either OMVs <b>(A, C)</b> or bacteria <b>(B, D)</b> in each assay, filled triangles indicate positive controls for each respective cell line. Data represents mean ± SEM of three biological replicates. ns = not significant, *p &lt; 0.05, **p &lt; 0.01, ***p &lt; 0.001, ****p &lt; 0.0001 (One-way ANOVA with Dunnetts multiple comparisons test, compared to non-stimulated controls).</div>
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<p> Figure 4 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B fragilis </i> OMVs enter host…</div>
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<p> Figure 4 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B fragilis </i> OMVs enter host intestinal epithelial cells and transport their peptidoglycan and…</div>
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Figure 4
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i>B fragilis</i> OMVs enter host intestinal epithelial cells and transport their peptidoglycan and RNA cargo intracellularly. The <b>(A)</b> lipid (DiI; red), <b>(B)</b> peptidoglycan (BODIPY-FL vancomycin; green) and <b>(C)</b> RNA (Syto RNASelect; green) cargo associated with <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs was fluorescently labelled. Fluorescently labelled <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs were then incubated with Caco-2 cells for 4 hours, and OMV entry was visualized by confocal microscopy. Cell nuclei and cellular actin were visualized by staining with DAPI (blue) or Phalloidin (magenta). Intracellular <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs are indicated by white arrows. DPBS containing each respective stain (Control) were incubated with Caco-2 cells to control for the non-specific uptake of each fluorescent stain by host cells. Images are representative of three biological replicates of Caco-2 cells stimulated with each type of fluorescently-labelled <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs. Scale bar = 10 μm.</div>
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data-image-width="767"
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data-image-alt="Figure 5"
data-pmc-id="PMC9592552"
data-figure-id="f5">
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<p> Figure 5 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B fragilis </i> OMVs activate NOD1…</div>
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<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Figure 5 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i> B fragilis </i> OMVs activate NOD1 and TLR7 whereas <i> B fragilis </i> bacteria cannot. <b> (A,… </b></div>
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Figure 5
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><i>B fragilis</i> OMVs activate NOD1 and TLR7 whereas <i>B fragilis</i> bacteria cannot. <b>(A, B)</b> NOD1, <b>(C, D)</b> NOD2, <b>(E, F)</b> TLR7, <b>(G, H)</b> TLR8 and <b>(I, J)</b> TLR9 expressing HEK-Blue cells were stimulated with an increasing MOI of either <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs (<b>A</b>, <b>C</b>, <b>E</b>, <b>G</b>, <b>I</b>, squares) or <i>B. fragilis</i> bacteria (<b>B</b>, <b>D</b>, <b>F</b>, <b>H</b>, <b>J</b>, circles) for 18 hours. Open triangles indicate stimulation of the HEK-Blue null cell line with either <i>B. fragilis</i> OMVs or <i>B. fragilis</i> bacteria as a negative control in each assay. Filled triangles indicate positive controls for each respective cell line. Data represents mean ± SEM of three biological replicates. ns=not significant, *p &lt; 0.05, **p &lt; 0.01. (One-way ANOVA with Dunnetts multiple comparisons test, compared to non-stimulated controls).</div>
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