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<option selected="selected" value="summary">Summary</option>
<option value="summary-text">Summary (text)</option>
<option value="abstract">Abstract</option>
<option value="abstract-text">Abstract (text)</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="include-supplemental-container">
<input type="checkbox" aria-label="Include MeSH and other data" name="include-supplemental" id="email-include-supplemental" class="email-include-supplemental">
<label for="email-include-supplemental" class="email-include-supplemental-label">MeSH and other data</label>
</div>
<div class="form-field recaptcha ">
<div class="g-recaptcha" id="id-recaptcha" data-sitekey="6LfsWHMdAAAAAClKbtOpjQ2pMjgsGxvv7NdZW9uI"></div>
</div>
<div id="captcha-error-message" class="usa-input-error-message captcha-validation-message" role="alert"></div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Sending..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="email"
data-ga-label="send">
Send email
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Email citations' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_email_panel"
aria-controls="email-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="email"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="email-search-details" value="" />
<input type="hidden" name="email-search-details-hash" value="0e42663a6c3bd85498fcb88798998fed7bfdc45d457db35281e41afe13cc0524" />
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="collections-action-panel"
class="collections-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel"
aria-hidden="true"
data-collections-open-panel-enabled="false"
data-collections-open-panel-url-hash="#open-collections-panel">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h3 class="action-panel-heading">
Add to Collections
</h3>
<form id="collections-action-panel-form"
class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors"
data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/"
data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/"
data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/"
data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/"
data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100"
data-add-to-collection-max-amount="1000"
data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="WtsINs6nuzc3myPMVkNGvawahDuUz4judgcNqizJ4aZxgZVCyDqIZi2OPHc6sFRO">
<div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup">
<ul class="radio-group-items">
<li>
<input type="radio"
id="collections-action-panel-new"
class="collections-new"
name="collections"
value="new"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_new">
<label for="collections-action-panel-new">Create a new collection</label>
</li>
<li>
<input type="radio"
id="collections-action-panel-existing"
class="collections-existing"
name="collections"
value="existing"
checked="true"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing">
<label for="collections-action-panel-existing">Add to an existing collection</label>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="controls-wrapper">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls">
<label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Name your collection:
</label>
<input
type="text"
name="add-to-new-collection"
id="collections-action-panel-add-to-new"
class="collections-action-add-to-new"
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/"
maxlength="100"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="create_collection"
data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection">
<div class="collections-new-name-too-long usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Name must be less than 100 characters
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls">
<label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label">
Choose a collection:
</label>
<select id="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing"
class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="select_collection"
data-ga-label="($('#collections-action-add-to-existing').val() === 'Favorites') ? 'Favorites' : 'non_favorites_collection'">
</select>
<div class="collections-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Unable to load your collection due to an error<br>
<a href="#">Please try again</a>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Adding..."
data-pinger-ignore
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="add">
Add
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Add to Collections' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_collections_panel"
aria-controls="collections-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="collections"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="bibliography-action-panel"
class="bibliography-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel"
aria-hidden="true"
data-bibliography-open-panel-enabled="false"
data-bibliography-open-panel-url-hash="#open-bibliography-panel">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h3 class="action-panel-heading">
Add to My Bibliography
</h3>
<form id="bibliography-action-panel-form"
class="bibliography-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors"
data-add-to-bibliography-max-amount="100"
data-add-to-bibliography-batch-size="10"
data-bibliography-delegates-url="/list-bibliography-delegates/"
data-add-to-bibliography-url="/add-to-bibliography/"
data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/"
data-mybib-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/mybibliography/">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="WtsINs6nuzc3myPMVkNGvawahDuUz4judgcNqizJ4aZxgZVCyDqIZi2OPHc6sFRO">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap bibliographies-controls">
<div class="choice-group">
<ul class="bibliographies-action-add radio-group-items">
<li>
<input name="bibliography" id="my-bibliography" class="my-bibliography" type="radio" checked/>
<label for="my-bibliography">My Bibliography</label>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="bibliographies-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Unable to load your delegates due to an error<br>
<a href="#">Please try again</a>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Adding..."
data-pinger-ignore>
Add
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Add to bibliography' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_bibliography_panel"
aria-controls="bibliography-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="mybib"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="saved-search-action-panel" class="saved-search-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true"
data-saved-search-open-panel-enabled="false"
data-saved-search-open-panel-url-hash="#open-saved-search-panel">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h2 class="action-panel-heading">
Your saved search
</h2>
<form id="saved-search-action-panel-form"
class="saved-search-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form"
data-create-saved-search-url="/create-saved-search/"
data-try-search-terms-url="/try-search-term/"
data-saved-search-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/searches/">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="WtsINs6nuzc3myPMVkNGvawahDuUz4judgcNqizJ4aZxgZVCyDqIZi2OPHc6sFRO">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-name" class="action-panel-label saved-search-name-label required-field-asterisk">
Name of saved search:
</label>
<input maxlength="200"
type="text"
name="saved-search-name"
id="saved-search-name"
class="saved-search-name"
value=""
required
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/">
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-term" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Search terms:
</label>
<textarea name="saved-search-term" id="saved-search-term" class="saved-search-term" required></textarea>
</div>
<div class="test-search-term-wrap">
<a href="#" class="try-search-term">Test search terms</a>
</div>
<div class="choice-group action-panel-extra-margin-top">
<span class="action-panel-label" id="fieldset-label">
Would you like email updates of new search results?
</span>
<fieldset id="saved-search-alert" aria-describedby="fieldset-label">
<legend class="usa-sr-only">Saved Search Alert Radio Buttons</legend>
<ul class="radio-group-items">
<li>
<input type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-yes" class="saved-search-alert-yes" name="saved-search-alert" value="yes" checked>
<label for="saved-search-alert-yes" class="action-panel-label">Yes</label>
</li>
<li>
<input aria-label="No radio input" type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-no" class="saved-search-alert-no" name="saved-search-alert" value="no">
<label for="saved-search-alert-no" class="action-panel-label">No</label>
</li>
</ul>
</fieldset>
</div>
<div class="alert-schedule-wrap">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label class="action-panel-label">
Email:
</label>
<span aria-label="Email address" id="saved-search-email" class="action-panel-label"><span class="action-panel-label-bold"></span> (<a class="myncbi-account-settings" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/settings/">change</a>)</span>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top">
<label for="saved-search-frequency" class="action-panel-label">
Frequency:
</label>
<select id="saved-search-frequency" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-frequency">
<option value="monthly">Monthly</option>
<option value="weekly">Weekly</option>
<option value="daily">Daily</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-monthly-additional">
<label for="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="action-panel-label">
Which day?
</label>
<select id="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector">
<option value="Sunday">The first Sunday</option>
<option value="Monday">The first Monday</option>
<option value="Tuesday">The first Tuesday</option>
<option value="Wednesday">The first Wednesday</option>
<option value="Thursday">The first Thursday</option>
<option value="Friday">The first Friday</option>
<option value="Saturday">The first Saturday</option>
<option value="day">The first day</option>
<option value="weekday">The first weekday</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-weekly-additional">
<label for="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="action-panel-label">
Which day?
</label>
<select id="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-weekly-on-day">
<option value="Sunday">Sunday</option>
<option value="Monday">Monday</option>
<option value="Tuesday">Tuesday</option>
<option value="Wednesday">Wednesday</option>
<option value="Thursday">Thursday</option>
<option value="Friday">Friday</option>
<option value="Saturday">Saturday</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-report" class="action-panel-label">
Report format:
</label>
<select id="saved-search-report" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-report">
<option value="DocSum">Summary</option>
<option value="DocSumText">Summary (text)</option>
<option value="Abstract">Abstract</option>
<option value="AbstractText">Abstract (text)</option>
<option value="MEDLINE">PubMed</option>
</select>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-amount" class="action-panel-label">
Send at most:
</label>
<select id="saved-search-amount" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-amount">
<option value="1">1 item</option>
<option value="5" selected>5 items</option>
<option value="10">10 items</option>
<option value="20">20 items</option>
<option value="50">50 items</option>
<option value="100">100 items</option>
<option value="200">200 items</option>
</select>
</div>
<div>
<input type="checkbox" id="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="saved-search-send-if-no-result" name="saved-search-send-if-no-result">
<label for="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="action-panel-label smaller-checkbox">
Send even when there aren't any new results
</label>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap option-text-in-email-wrap">
<label for="saved-search-email-text" class="action-panel-label">
Optional text in email:
</label>
<textarea name="saved-search-email-text"
id="saved-search-email-text"
class="saved-search-email-text"></textarea>
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Saving..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="save">
Save
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Your saved search' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_saved_search_panel"
aria-controls="saved-search-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="citation-manager-action-panel" class="citation-manager-action-panel action-panel" aria-hidden="true">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h2 class="action-panel-heading">
Create a file for external citation management software
</h2>
<form id="citation-manager-action-panel-form"
class="action-panel-content action-form"
action="/results-export-ids/"
data-by-search-action="/results-export-search-data/"
data-by-ids-action="/results-export-ids/"
method="post"
data-by-search-method="post"
data-by-ids-method="post">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="WtsINs6nuzc3myPMVkNGvawahDuUz4judgcNqizJ4aZxgZVCyDqIZi2OPHc6sFRO">
<input name="results-format" type="hidden" value="pubmed"/>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Sending..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="citation_manager"
data-ga-label="save">
Create file
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Send citations to citation manager' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_citation_manager_panel"
aria-controls="citation-manager-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="citation_manager"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="rss-action-panel" class="rss-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<h2 class="action-panel-heading">
Your RSS Feed
</h2>
<form id="rss-action-panel-form"
class="rss-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form"
data-create-rss-feed-url="/create-rss-feed-url/"
data-search-form-term-value="">
<input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="WtsINs6nuzc3myPMVkNGvawahDuUz4judgcNqizJ4aZxgZVCyDqIZi2OPHc6sFRO">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap">
<label for="rss-name" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Name of RSS Feed:
</label>
<input maxlength="200"
placeholder="Name"
type="text"
name="rss-name"
id="rss-name"
class="rss-name"
value=''
required
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/">
</div>
<div class="rss-limit-wrap">
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top">
<label for="rss-limit" class="action-panel-label">
Number of items displayed:
</label>
<select id="rss-limit" class="no-border-panel-selector rss-limit">
<option value="5">5</option>
<option value="10">10</option>
<option value="15" selected="selected">15</option>
<option value="20">20</option>
<option value="50">50</option>
<option value="100">100</option>
</select>
</div>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-actions">
<button class="action-panel-submit"
type="submit"
data-loading-label="Creating..."
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="save">
Create RSS
</button>
<button class="action-panel-cancel"
aria-label="Close 'Your RSS' panel"
ref="linksrc=close_rss_panel"
aria-controls="rss-action-panel"
aria-expanded="false"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="alert"
data-ga-label="cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</div>
<div class="action-panel-control-wrap rss-link-copy-wrap">
<label for="rss-link" class="usa-sr-only">RSS Link</label>
<input placeholder="Your RSS Feed Link" type="text" name="rss-link" id="rss-link" class="rss-link" title="RSS Link">
<button
type="button"
disabled
class="rss-link-copy-button disabled"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="rss"
data-ga-label="copy">
Copy
</button>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="article-page" id="article-page" data-article-pmid="34131819">
<aside class="page-sidebar">
<div class="inner-wrap">
<div class="full-text-links">
<div class="full-view">
<h3 class="title">
Full text links
</h3>
<div class="full-text-links-list">
<a class="link-item
dialog-focus"
href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00449-021-02597-5"
target="_blank"
rel="noopener"
ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&amp;is_pmc=False&amp;PrId=3055&amp;itool=Abstract-def&amp;log$=linkouticon&amp;uid=34131819&amp;db=pubmed&amp;nlmid=101088505"
title="See full text options at Springer"
data-ga-category="full_text"
data-ga-action="Springer"
data-ga-label="34131819"
><img src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corehtml/query/egifs/http:--production.springer.de-OnlineResources-Logos-springerlink.gif" alt="Springer full text link"><span class="text">
Springer
</span></a><a class="link-item
pmc
"
href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/pmid/34131819/"
target="_blank"
rel="noopener"
ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&amp;is_pmc=True&amp;PrId=3494&amp;itool=Abstract-def&amp;log$=linkouticon&amp;uid=34131819&amp;db=pubmed&amp;nlmid=101088505"
title="Free full text at PubMed Central"
data-ga-category="full_text"
data-ga-action="PMC"
data-ga-label="34131819"
><span class="text">
Free PMC article
</span></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="short-view">
<a href="#" class="full-text-links-button full-text-links-dialog-trigger">
Full text links
</a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="actions-buttons sidebar"><h3 class="title">Actions</h3><div class="inner-wrap"><button class="citation-button citation-dialog-trigger"
aria-label="Open dialog with citation text in different styles"
data-ga-category="save_share"
data-ga-action="cite"
data-ga-label="open"
data-all-citations-url="/34131819/citations/"
data-citation-style="nlm"
data-pubmed-format-link="/34131819/export/"><span class="button-label">Cite</span></button><link type="text/css" href="ncbi-overlay-block/src/overlay-block.css"><div class="collections-button-container" data-article-id="34131819" data-article-db="pubmed"><button class="collections-button collections-dialog-trigger"
aria-label="Save article in MyNCBI collections."
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="click"
data-ga-label="collections_button"
data-collections-open-dialog-enabled="false"
data-collections-open-dialog-url="https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F34131819%2F%23open-collections-dialog"
data-in-collections="false"><span class="button-label">Collections</span></button><div class="overlay" role="dialog"><div id="collections-action-dialog"
class="dialog collections-dialog"
aria-hidden="true"><div class="title">Add to Collections</div><div class="collections-action-panel action-panel"><form id="collections-action-dialog-form"
class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors"
data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/"
data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/"
data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/"
data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100"
data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/"><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="WtsINs6nuzc3myPMVkNGvawahDuUz4judgcNqizJ4aZxgZVCyDqIZi2OPHc6sFRO"><div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup"><ul class="radio-group-items"><li><input type="radio"
id="collections-action-dialog-new"
class="collections-new"
name="collections"
value="new"
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="click"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_new"><label for="collections-action-dialog-new">Create a new collection</label></li><li><input type="radio"
id="collections-action-dialog-existing"
class="collections-existing"
name="collections"
value="existing"
checked="true"
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="click"
data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing"><label for="collections-action-dialog-existing">Add to an existing collection</label></li></ul></div><div class="controls-wrapper"><div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls"><label for="collections-action-dialog-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk">
Name your collection:
</label><input
type="text"
name="add-to-new-collection"
id="collections-action-dialog-add-to-new"
class="collections-action-add-to-new"
pattern="[^&quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: &quot;&amp;=&lt;&gt;/"
maxlength="100"
data-ga-category="collections_button"
data-ga-action="create_collection"
data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection"><div class="collections-new-name-too-long usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message">
Name must be less than 100 characters
</div></div><div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls"><label for="collections-action-dialog-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label">
Choose a collection:
</label><select id="collections-action-dialog-add-to-existing"
class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing"
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Abstract
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<p>
Biosurfactants are in demand by the global market as natural commodities that can be added to commercial products or use in environmental applications. These biomolecules reduce the surface/interfacial tension between fluid phases and exhibit superior stability to chemical surfactants under different physico-chemical conditions. Biotechnological production of biosurfactants is still emerging. Fungi are promising producers of these molecules with unique chemical structures, such as sophorolipids, mannosylerythritol lipids, cellobiose lipids, xylolipids, polyol lipids and hydrophobins. In this review, we aimed to contextualize concepts related to fungal biosurfactant production and its application in industry and the environment. Concepts related to the thermodynamic and physico-chemical properties of biosurfactants are presented, which allows detailed analysis of their structural and application. Promising niches for isolating biosurfactant-producing fungi are presented, as well as screening methodologies are discussed. Finally, strategies related to process parameters and variables, simultaneous production, process optimization through statistical and genetic tools, downstream processing and some aspects of commercial products formulations are presented.
</p>
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<p>
<strong class="sub-title">
Keywords:
</strong>
Bioprocess; Biosurfactants; Downstream; Filamentous fungi; Screening; Yeasts.
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© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.
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<p xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:p1="http://pubmed.gov/pub-one">The authors declare no financial or commercial conflict of interest.</p>
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Figures
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<p> Fig. 1 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Biosurfactants are amphiphilic molecules, their… </p></div>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Biosurfactants are amphiphilic molecules, their composition consists of hydrophilic (carboxylic acids, alcohols, amino… </p></div>
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Fig. 1
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">Biosurfactants are amphiphilic molecules, their composition consists of hydrophilic (carboxylic acids, alcohols, amino acids, phosphates, peptides, mono-, di- or polysaccharide cations or anions) and hydrophobic (hydrocarbon chains or saturated/unsaturated fatty acids) moieties (<b>a</b>). These molecules accumulate at phase interfaces of different polarities and stabilise heterogeneous phases (oil/air bubble droplets). <b>b</b> Thus, adsorption reduces the free energy per unit area needed to create a new surface, a reduction that is closely related to surface tension (liquidair) and interfacial tension (liquidliquid) [note the displacement of surface oil over water in <b>c</b>] [34]. Biosurfactant monomers (<b>d</b>) due to their self-assembly properties on reaching the Critical Micellar Concentration (CMC) (<b>e</b>), can form aggregated micellar structures (<b>f</b>) [35]. Micelle formation and solubility occur just above the Krafft temperature (<b>g</b>), i.e., the critical temperature at which micellar self-assembly occurs due to dissolution of the hydrated surfactant crystals (<b>h</b>) [36]. Bioemulsifiers are less effective in reducing surface tension and are involved in the formation and stabilization of emulsions between two immiscible phases (<b>i</b>) [31, 32]</div>
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<p> Fig. 2 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Chemical structure of fungal glycolipids… </p></div>
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<p> Fig. 2 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Chemical structure of fungal glycolipids and polyol lipids (adapted from [12] and [39]).… </p></div>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">Chemical structure of fungal glycolipids and polyol lipids (adapted from [12] and [39]). The hydrophilic portions are highlighted in blue</div>
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<p> Fig. 3 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Collapse drop test occurs with… </p></div>
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<p> Fig. 3 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Collapse drop test occurs with the addition of oil and samples (3:1 v/v)… </p></div>
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Fig. 3
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">Collapse drop test occurs with the addition of oil and samples (3:1 v/v) to the wells of the microplate. First, oil is added to form a hydrophobic surface. Afterwards, drops of samples containing biosurfactants will collapse on contact with this surface as shown in <b>a</b>, and Parafilm-M test in <b>b</b>, where <i>r</i><sub>n=1,2,3,4</sub>=drop radius and <i>n</i> analyzed sample</div>
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 4 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> The oil spread test occurs… </p></div>
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<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 4 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> The oil spread test occurs with the addition of water and a smaller… </p></div>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">The oil spread test occurs with the addition of water and a smaller volume of oil to form a thin hydrophobic layer. Then, the test sample is added over the oil layer and provides the displacement of the area on the oil surface</div>
</figcaption>
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 5 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> EI <sub> 24 </sub> test: addition of… </p></div>
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<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 5 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> EI <sub> 24 </sub> test: addition of equal volumes (1:1) of hydrophobic substrates and samples… </p></div>
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Fig. 5
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">EI<sub>24</sub> test: addition of equal volumes (1:1) of hydrophobic substrates and samples containing biosurfactants in graduated tubes. Subsequently, the mixture is stirred at high speed, being maintained in the absence of disturbance for phase separation and stability of the formed emulsion (<b>a</b>). The emulsification percentage value can be measured according to (<b>b</b>)</div>
</figcaption>
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<p> Fig. 6 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> The microbial adhesion to hydrocarbon… </p></div>
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 6 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> The microbial adhesion to hydrocarbon test is initiated by washing fungal cells to… </p></div>
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Fig. 6
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">The microbial adhesion to hydrocarbon test is initiated by washing fungal cells to remove contaminants, followed by a resuspension in buffer solution (PUM) until reaching a standardized optical density (DO). Thereafter, the hydrocarbon is added, and the mixture is stirred. After complete separation of phases, the organic phase is removed, and the optical density is measured again (<b>a</b>). The percentage value of microbial cell adhesion to hydrocarbons is obtained as in (<b>b</b>)</div>
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 7 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Methylene blue-CTAB agar test (… </p></div>
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<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 7 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Methylene blue-CTAB agar test ( <b> a </b> ) and blood hemolysis test ( <b> b… </b> </p></div>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">Methylene blue-CTAB agar test (<b>a</b>) and blood hemolysis test (<b>b</b>). Biosurfactant-producing strains produce a halo when grown in a solid medium of defined composition. The cultivation period for obtaining the results varies according to culture strain</div>
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 8 </p>
</strong>
<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Microplate assay is initiated by… </p></div>
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<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 8 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Microplate assay is initiated by placing a grid paper under a microplate. The… </p></div>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">Microplate assay is initiated by placing a grid paper under a microplate. The culture medium/water in a microplate well is considered to have a flat surface. A sample with biosurfactant will have a change at the well edge and the fluid surface will become concave, and consequently distorts the image (<b>a</b>). The penetration test occurs by adding a hydrophobic paste to the wells of the microplate, which is covered with mineral oil. Then, the sample is stained with red solution and added to the hydrophobic surface. The presence of biosurfactants is detected through its influence on the rupture of the barrier (interface) of the oil layer in the paste, which favors the entry of silica into the hydrophilic phase, and the upper phase changes the color from light red to cloudy white (<b>b</b>)</div>
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<p> Fig. 9 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> The double diffusion agar test… </p></div>
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<div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true">
<strong class="figure-label">
<p> Fig. 9 </p>
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<div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> The double diffusion agar test occurs with the addition of biosurfactant samples in… </p></div>
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Fig. 9
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<div class="figure-caption-contents">The double diffusion agar test occurs with the addition of biosurfactant samples in wells in a row regularly spaced against another row of wells filled with a known cationic or anionic element. The appearance of precipitation lines (48 h) between the wells indicates the ionic character of the biosurfactants</div>
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