86 lines
68 KiB
HTML
86 lines
68 KiB
HTML
<!DOCTYPE html>
|
||
<html amp lang="en-US" data-amp-auto-lightbox-disable transformed="self;v=1" i-amphtml-layout="" i-amphtml-no-boilerplate="">
|
||
<head><meta charset="utf-8"><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width,minimum-scale=1"><link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.ampproject.org"><style amp-runtime="" i-amphtml-version="012502032353000">html{overflow-x:hidden!important}html.i-amphtml-fie{height:100%!important;width:100%!important}html:not([amp4ads]),html:not([amp4ads]) body{height:auto!important}html:not([amp4ads]) body{margin:0!important}body{-webkit-text-size-adjust:100%;-moz-text-size-adjust:100%;-ms-text-size-adjust:100%;text-size-adjust:100%}html.i-amphtml-singledoc.i-amphtml-embedded{-ms-touch-action:pan-y pinch-zoom;touch-action:pan-y pinch-zoom}html.i-amphtml-fie>body,html.i-amphtml-singledoc>body{overflow:visible!important}html.i-amphtml-fie:not(.i-amphtml-inabox)>body,html.i-amphtml-singledoc:not(.i-amphtml-inabox)>body{position:relative!important}html.i-amphtml-ios-embed-legacy>body{overflow-x:hidden!important;overflow-y:auto!important;position:absolute!important}html.i-amphtml-ios-embed{overflow-y:auto!important;position:static}#i-amphtml-wrapper{overflow-x:hidden!important;overflow-y:auto!important;position:absolute!important;top:0!important;left:0!important;right:0!important;bottom:0!important;margin:0!important;display:block!important}html.i-amphtml-ios-embed.i-amphtml-ios-overscroll,html.i-amphtml-ios-embed.i-amphtml-ios-overscroll>#i-amphtml-wrapper{-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch!important}#i-amphtml-wrapper>body{position:relative!important;border-top:1px solid transparent!important}#i-amphtml-wrapper+body{visibility:visible}#i-amphtml-wrapper+body .i-amphtml-lightbox-element,#i-amphtml-wrapper+body[i-amphtml-lightbox]{visibility:hidden}#i-amphtml-wrapper+body[i-amphtml-lightbox] .i-amphtml-lightbox-element{visibility:visible}#i-amphtml-wrapper.i-amphtml-scroll-disabled,.i-amphtml-scroll-disabled{overflow-x:hidden!important;overflow-y:hidden!important}amp-instagram{padding:54px 0px 0px!important;background-color:#fff}amp-iframe iframe{box-sizing:border-box!important}[amp-access][amp-access-hide]{display:none}[subscriptions-dialog],body:not(.i-amphtml-subs-ready) [subscriptions-action],body:not(.i-amphtml-subs-ready) [subscriptions-section]{display:none!important}amp-experiment,amp-live-list>[update]{display:none}amp-list[resizable-children]>.i-amphtml-loading-container.amp-hidden{display:none!important}amp-list [fetch-error],amp-list[load-more] [load-more-button],amp-list[load-more] [load-more-end],amp-list[load-more] [load-more-failed],amp-list[load-more] [load-more-loading]{display:none}amp-list[diffable] div[role=list]{display:block}amp-story-page,amp-story[standalone]{min-height:1px!important;display:block!important;height:100%!important;margin:0!important;padding:0!important;overflow:hidden!important;width:100%!important}amp-story[standalone]{background-color:#000!important;position:relative!important}amp-story-page{background-color:#757575}amp-story .amp-active>div,amp-story .i-amphtml-loader-background{display:none!important}amp-story-page:not(:first-of-type):not([distance]):not([active]){transform:translateY(1000vh)!important}amp-autocomplete{position:relative!important;display:inline-block!important}amp-autocomplete>input,amp-autocomplete>textarea{padding:0.5rem;border:1px solid rgba(0,0,0,.33)}.i-amphtml-autocomplete-results,amp-autocomplete>input,amp-autocomplete>textarea{font-size:1rem;line-height:1.5rem}[amp-fx^=fly-in]{visibility:hidden}amp-script[nodom],amp-script[sandboxed]{position:fixed!important;top:0!important;width:1px!important;height:1px!important;overflow:hidden!important;visibility:hidden}
|
||
/*# sourceURL=/css/ampdoc.css*/[hidden]{display:none!important}.i-amphtml-element{display:inline-block}.i-amphtml-blurry-placeholder{transition:opacity 0.3s cubic-bezier(0.0,0.0,0.2,1)!important;pointer-events:none}[layout=nodisplay]:not(.i-amphtml-element){display:none!important}.i-amphtml-layout-fixed,[layout=fixed][width][height]:not(.i-amphtml-layout-fixed){display:inline-block;position:relative}.i-amphtml-layout-responsive,[layout=responsive][width][height]:not(.i-amphtml-layout-responsive),[width][height][heights]:not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-layout-responsive),[width][height][sizes]:not(img):not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-layout-responsive){display:block;position:relative}.i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic,[layout=intrinsic][width][height]:not(.i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic){display:inline-block;position:relative;max-width:100%}.i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic .i-amphtml-sizer{max-width:100%}.i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer{max-width:100%;display:block!important}.i-amphtml-layout-container,.i-amphtml-layout-fixed-height,[layout=container],[layout=fixed-height][height]:not(.i-amphtml-layout-fixed-height){display:block;position:relative}.i-amphtml-layout-fill,.i-amphtml-layout-fill.i-amphtml-notbuilt,[layout=fill]:not(.i-amphtml-layout-fill),body noscript>*{display:block;overflow:hidden!important;position:absolute;top:0;left:0;bottom:0;right:0}body noscript>*{position:absolute!important;width:100%;height:100%;z-index:2}body noscript{display:inline!important}.i-amphtml-layout-flex-item,[layout=flex-item]:not(.i-amphtml-layout-flex-item){display:block;position:relative;-ms-flex:1 1 auto;flex:1 1 auto}.i-amphtml-layout-fluid{position:relative}.i-amphtml-layout-size-defined{overflow:hidden!important}.i-amphtml-layout-awaiting-size{position:absolute!important;top:auto!important;bottom:auto!important}i-amphtml-sizer{display:block!important}@supports (aspect-ratio:1/1){i-amphtml-sizer.i-amphtml-disable-ar{display:none!important}}.i-amphtml-blurry-placeholder,.i-amphtml-fill-content{display:block;height:0;max-height:100%;max-width:100%;min-height:100%;min-width:100%;width:0;margin:auto}.i-amphtml-layout-size-defined .i-amphtml-fill-content{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;bottom:0;right:0}.i-amphtml-replaced-content,.i-amphtml-screen-reader{padding:0!important;border:none!important}.i-amphtml-screen-reader{position:fixed!important;top:0px!important;left:0px!important;width:4px!important;height:4px!important;opacity:0!important;overflow:hidden!important;margin:0!important;display:block!important;visibility:visible!important}.i-amphtml-screen-reader~.i-amphtml-screen-reader{left:8px!important}.i-amphtml-screen-reader~.i-amphtml-screen-reader~.i-amphtml-screen-reader{left:12px!important}.i-amphtml-screen-reader~.i-amphtml-screen-reader~.i-amphtml-screen-reader~.i-amphtml-screen-reader{left:16px!important}.i-amphtml-unresolved{position:relative;overflow:hidden!important}.i-amphtml-select-disabled{-webkit-user-select:none!important;-ms-user-select:none!important;user-select:none!important}.i-amphtml-notbuilt,[layout]:not(.i-amphtml-element),[width][height][heights]:not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-element),[width][height][sizes]:not(img):not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-element){position:relative;overflow:hidden!important;color:transparent!important}.i-amphtml-notbuilt:not(.i-amphtml-layout-container)>*,[layout]:not([layout=container]):not(.i-amphtml-element)>*,[width][height][heights]:not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-element)>*,[width][height][sizes]:not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-element)>*{display:none}amp-img:not(.i-amphtml-element)[i-amphtml-ssr]>img.i-amphtml-fill-content{display:block}.i-amphtml-notbuilt:not(.i-amphtml-layout-container),[layout]:not([layout=container]):not(.i-amphtml-element),[width][height][heights]:not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-element),[width][height][sizes]:not(img):not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-element){color:transparent!important;line-height:0!important}.i-amphtml-ghost{visibility:hidden!important}.i-amphtml-element>[placeholder],[layout]:not(.i-amphtml-element)>[placeholder],[width][height][heights]:not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-element)>[placeholder],[width][height][sizes]:not([layout]):not(.i-amphtml-element)>[placeholder]{display:block;line-height:normal}.i-amphtml-element>[placeholder].amp-hidden,.i-amphtml-element>[placeholder].hidden{visibility:hidden}.i-amphtml-element:not(.amp-notsupported)>[fallback],.i-amphtml-layout-container>[placeholder].amp-hidden,.i-amphtml-layout-container>[placeholder].hidden{display:none}.i-amphtml-layout-size-defined>[fallback],.i-amphtml-layout-size-defined>[placeholder]{position:absolute!important;top:0!important;left:0!important;right:0!important;bottom:0!important;z-index:1}amp-img[i-amphtml-ssr]:not(.i-amphtml-element)>[placeholder]{z-index:auto}.i-amphtml-notbuilt>[placeholder]{display:block!important}.i-amphtml-hidden-by-media-query{display:none!important}.i-amphtml-element-error{background:red!important;color:#fff!important;position:relative!important}.i-amphtml-element-error:before{content:attr(error-message)}i-amp-scroll-container,i-amphtml-scroll-container{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;right:0;bottom:0;display:block}i-amp-scroll-container.amp-active,i-amphtml-scroll-container.amp-active{overflow:auto;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}.i-amphtml-loading-container{display:block!important;pointer-events:none;z-index:1}.i-amphtml-notbuilt>.i-amphtml-loading-container{display:block!important}.i-amphtml-loading-container.amp-hidden{visibility:hidden}.i-amphtml-element>[overflow]{cursor:pointer;position:relative;z-index:2;visibility:hidden;display:initial;line-height:normal}.i-amphtml-layout-size-defined>[overflow]{position:absolute}.i-amphtml-element>[overflow].amp-visible{visibility:visible}template{display:none!important}.amp-border-box,.amp-border-box *,.amp-border-box :after,.amp-border-box :before{box-sizing:border-box}amp-pixel{display:none!important}amp-analytics,amp-auto-ads,amp-story-auto-ads{position:fixed!important;top:0!important;width:1px!important;height:1px!important;overflow:hidden!important;visibility:hidden}amp-story{visibility:hidden!important}html.i-amphtml-fie>amp-analytics{position:initial!important}[visible-when-invalid]:not(.visible),form [submit-error],form [submit-success],form [submitting]{display:none}amp-accordion{display:block!important}@media (min-width:1px){:where(amp-accordion>section)>:first-child{margin:0;background-color:#efefef;padding-right:20px;border:1px solid #dfdfdf}:where(amp-accordion>section)>:last-child{margin:0}}amp-accordion>section{float:none!important}amp-accordion>section>*{float:none!important;display:block!important;overflow:hidden!important;position:relative!important}amp-accordion,amp-accordion>section{margin:0}amp-accordion:not(.i-amphtml-built)>section>:last-child{display:none!important}amp-accordion:not(.i-amphtml-built)>section[expanded]>:last-child{display:block!important}
|
||
/*# sourceURL=/css/ampshared.css*/</style><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="og:title" content="Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons"><meta property="og:url" content="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2023/02/16/opening-doors-contemporary-african-american-academic-surgeons/"><meta property="og:description" content="By Erika Mills ~ African Americans have always practiced medicine, as physicians, healers, midwives, or “root doctors.” Early black physicians became skilled practitioners, trained generations of p…"><meta property="article:published_time" content="2023-02-16T16:00:20+00:00"><meta property="article:modified_time" content="2024-02-16T19:29:08+00:00"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Circulating Now from the NLM Historical Collections"><meta property="og:image" content="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1"><meta property="og:image:width" content="900"><meta property="og:image:height" content="400"><meta property="og:image:alt" content="Logo for the exhibition Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_US"><meta name="twitter:site" content="@NLM_NIH"><meta name="twitter:text:title" content="Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons"><meta name="twitter:image" content="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&w=640"><meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Logo for the exhibition Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons"><meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"><meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"><meta name="generator" content="AMP Plugin v2.5.5; mode=reader; theme=legacy"><script async="" src="https://cdn.ampproject.org/v0.mjs" type="module" crossorigin="anonymous"></script><script async nomodule src="https://cdn.ampproject.org/v0.js" crossorigin="anonymous"></script><script src="https://cdn.ampproject.org/v0/amp-anim-0.1.mjs" async="" custom-element="amp-anim" type="module" crossorigin="anonymous"></script><script async nomodule src="https://cdn.ampproject.org/v0/amp-anim-0.1.js" crossorigin="anonymous" custom-element="amp-anim"></script><script src="https://cdn.ampproject.org/v0/amp-social-share-0.1.mjs" async="" custom-element="amp-social-share" type="module" crossorigin="anonymous"></script><script async nomodule src="https://cdn.ampproject.org/v0/amp-social-share-0.1.js" crossorigin="anonymous" custom-element="amp-social-share"></script><style amp-custom="">#amp-mobile-version-switcher{left:0;position:absolute;width:100%;z-index:100}#amp-mobile-version-switcher>a{background-color:#444;border:0;color:#eaeaea;display:block;font-family:-apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,Segoe UI,Roboto,Oxygen-Sans,Ubuntu,Cantarell,Helvetica Neue,sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:600;padding:15px 0;text-align:center;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none}#amp-mobile-version-switcher>a:active,#amp-mobile-version-switcher>a:focus,#amp-mobile-version-switcher>a:hover{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline}.jp-related-posts-i2__list{--hgap:1rem;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;column-gap:var(--hgap);row-gap:2rem;margin:0;padding:0;list-style-type:none}.jp-related-posts-i2__post{display:flex;flex-direction:column;flex-basis:calc(( 100% - var(--hgap) ) / 2)}.jp-related-posts-i2__post:nth-last-child(n+3):first-child,.jp-related-posts-i2__post:nth-last-child(n+3):first-child ~ *{flex-basis:calc(( 100% - var(--hgap) * 2 ) / 3)}.jp-related-posts-i2__post:nth-last-child(4):first-child,.jp-related-posts-i2__post:nth-last-child(4):first-child ~ *{flex-basis:calc(( 100% - var(--hgap) ) / 2)}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-link{display:flex;flex-direction:column;row-gap:.5rem;width:100%;margin-bottom:1rem;line-height:1.2}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-link:focus-visible{outline-offset:2px}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-img{order:-1;max-width:100%}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-defs{margin:0;list-style-type:unset}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-defs dt{position:absolute;width:1px;height:1px;overflow:hidden;clip:rect(1px,1px,1px,1px);white-space:nowrap}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-defs dd{margin:0}.jp-relatedposts-i2[data-layout="list"] .jp-related-posts-i2__list{display:block}.jp-relatedposts-i2[data-layout="list"] .jp-related-posts-i2__post{margin-bottom:2rem}@media only screen and (max-width: 640px){.jp-related-posts-i2__list{display:block}.jp-related-posts-i2__post{margin-bottom:2rem}}:where(.wp-block-button__link){border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);text-decoration:none}:root :where(.wp-block-button .wp-block-button__link.is-style-outline),:root :where(.wp-block-button.is-style-outline>.wp-block-button__link){border:2px solid;padding:.667em 1.333em}:root :where(.wp-block-button .wp-block-button__link.is-style-outline:not(.has-text-color)),:root :where(.wp-block-button.is-style-outline>.wp-block-button__link:not(.has-text-color)){color:currentColor}:root :where(.wp-block-button .wp-block-button__link.is-style-outline:not(.has-background)),:root :where(.wp-block-button.is-style-outline>.wp-block-button__link:not(.has-background)){background-color:initial;background-image:none}:where(.wp-block-columns){margin-bottom:1.75em}:where(.wp-block-columns.has-background){padding:1.25em 2.375em}:where(.wp-block-post-comments input[type=submit]){border:none}:where(.wp-block-cover-image:not(.has-text-color)),:where(.wp-block-cover:not(.has-text-color)){color:#fff}:where(.wp-block-cover-image.is-light:not(.has-text-color)),:where(.wp-block-cover.is-light:not(.has-text-color)){color:#000}:root :where(.wp-block-cover h1:not(.has-text-color)),:root :where(.wp-block-cover h2:not(.has-text-color)),:root :where(.wp-block-cover h3:not(.has-text-color)),:root :where(.wp-block-cover h4:not(.has-text-color)),:root :where(.wp-block-cover h5:not(.has-text-color)),:root :where(.wp-block-cover h6:not(.has-text-color)),:root :where(.wp-block-cover p:not(.has-text-color)){color:inherit}:where(.wp-block-file){margin-bottom:1.5em}:where(.wp-block-file__button){border-radius:2em;display:inline-block;padding:.5em 1em}:where(.wp-block-file__button):is(a):active,:where(.wp-block-file__button):is(a):focus,:where(.wp-block-file__button):is(a):hover,:where(.wp-block-file__button):is(a):visited{box-shadow:none;color:#fff;opacity:.85;text-decoration:none}:where(.wp-block-group.wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained){position:relative}@keyframes show-content-image{0%{visibility:hidden}99%{visibility:hidden}to{visibility:visible}}@keyframes turn-on-visibility{0%{opacity:0}to{opacity:1}}@keyframes turn-off-visibility{0%{opacity:1;visibility:visible}99%{opacity:0;visibility:visible}to{opacity:0;visibility:hidden}}@keyframes lightbox-zoom-in{0%{transform:translate(calc(( -100vw + var(--wp--lightbox-scrollbar-width) ) / 2 + var(--wp--lightbox-initial-left-position)),calc(-50vh + var(--wp--lightbox-initial-top-position))) scale(var(--wp--lightbox-scale))}to{transform:translate(-50%,-50%) scale(1)}}@keyframes lightbox-zoom-out{0%{transform:translate(-50%,-50%) scale(1);visibility:visible}99%{visibility:visible}to{transform:translate(calc(( -100vw + var(--wp--lightbox-scrollbar-width) ) / 2 + var(--wp--lightbox-initial-left-position)),calc(-50vh + var(--wp--lightbox-initial-top-position))) scale(var(--wp--lightbox-scale));visibility:hidden}}:where(.wp-block-latest-comments:not([data-amp-original-style*=line-height] .wp-block-latest-comments__comment)){line-height:1.1}:where(.wp-block-latest-comments:not([data-amp-original-style*=line-height] .wp-block-latest-comments__comment-excerpt p)){line-height:1.8}:root :where(.wp-block-latest-posts.is-grid){padding:0}:root :where(.wp-block-latest-posts.wp-block-latest-posts__list){padding-left:0}ul{box-sizing:border-box}:root :where(.wp-block-list.has-background){padding:1.25em 2.375em}:where(.wp-block-navigation.has-background .wp-block-navigation-item a:not(.wp-element-button)),:where(.wp-block-navigation.has-background .wp-block-navigation-submenu a:not(.wp-element-button)){padding:.5em 1em}:where(.wp-block-navigation .wp-block-navigation__submenu-container .wp-block-navigation-item a:not(.wp-element-button)),:where(.wp-block-navigation .wp-block-navigation__submenu-container .wp-block-navigation-submenu a:not(.wp-element-button)),:where(.wp-block-navigation .wp-block-navigation__submenu-container .wp-block-navigation-submenu button.wp-block-navigation-item__content),:where(.wp-block-navigation .wp-block-navigation__submenu-container .wp-block-pages-list__item button.wp-block-navigation-item__content){padding:.5em 1em}@keyframes overlay-menu__fade-in-animation{0%{opacity:0;transform:translateY(.5em)}to{opacity:1;transform:translateY(0)}}:root :where(p.has-background){padding:1.25em 2.375em}:where(p.has-text-color:not(.has-link-color)) a{color:inherit}:where(.wp-block-post-excerpt){box-sizing:border-box;margin-bottom:var(--wp--style--block-gap);margin-top:var(--wp--style--block-gap)}:where(.wp-block-preformatted.has-background){padding:1.25em 2.375em}:where(.wp-block-search__button){border:1px solid #ccc;padding:6px 10px}:where(.wp-block-search__input){font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit;font-style:inherit;font-weight:inherit;letter-spacing:inherit;line-height:inherit;text-transform:inherit}:where(.wp-block-search__button-inside .wp-block-search__inside-wrapper){border:1px solid #949494;box-sizing:border-box;padding:4px}:where(.wp-block-search__button-inside .wp-block-search__inside-wrapper) :where(.wp-block-search__button){padding:4px 8px}:root :where(.wp-block-separator.is-style-dots){height:auto;line-height:1;text-align:center}:root :where(.wp-block-separator.is-style-dots):before{color:currentColor;content:"···";font-family:serif;font-size:1.5em;letter-spacing:2em;padding-left:2em}:root :where(.wp-block-site-logo.is-style-rounded){border-radius:9999px}:root :where(.wp-block-social-links .wp-social-link a){padding:.25em}:root :where(.wp-block-social-links.is-style-logos-only .wp-social-link a){padding:0}:root :where(.wp-block-social-links.is-style-pill-shape .wp-social-link a){padding-left:.6666666667em;padding-right:.6666666667em}:root :where(.wp-block-tag-cloud.is-style-outline){display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;gap:1ch}:root :where(.wp-block-tag-cloud.is-style-outline a){border:1px solid;margin-right:0;padding:1ch 2ch}:root :where(.wp-block-tag-cloud.is-style-outline a):not(#_#_#_#_#_#_#_#_){font-size:unset;text-decoration:none}:root :where(.wp-block-table-of-contents){box-sizing:border-box}:where(.wp-block-term-description){box-sizing:border-box;margin-bottom:var(--wp--style--block-gap);margin-top:var(--wp--style--block-gap)}:where(pre.wp-block-verse){font-family:inherit}:root{--wp--preset--font-size--normal:16px;--wp--preset--font-size--huge:42px}.aligncenter{clear:both}html :where(.has-border-color){border-style:solid}html :where([data-amp-original-style*=border-top-color]){border-top-style:solid}html :where([data-amp-original-style*=border-right-color]){border-right-style:solid}html :where([data-amp-original-style*=border-bottom-color]){border-bottom-style:solid}html :where([data-amp-original-style*=border-left-color]){border-left-style:solid}html :where([data-amp-original-style*=border-width]){border-style:solid}html :where([data-amp-original-style*=border-top-width]){border-top-style:solid}html :where([data-amp-original-style*=border-right-width]){border-right-style:solid}html :where([data-amp-original-style*=border-bottom-width]){border-bottom-style:solid}html :where([data-amp-original-style*=border-left-width]){border-left-style:solid}html :where(amp-img[class*=wp-image-]),html :where(amp-anim[class*=wp-image-]){height:auto;max-width:100%}:where(figure){margin:0 0 1em}html :where(.is-position-sticky){--wp-admin--admin-bar--position-offset:var(--wp-admin--admin-bar--height,0px)}@media screen and (max-width:600px){html :where(.is-position-sticky){--wp-admin--admin-bar--position-offset:0px}}:root :where(.wp-block-image figcaption){color:#555;font-size:13px;text-align:center}:where(.wp-block-group.has-background){padding:1.25em 2.375em}:root :where(.wp-block-template-part.has-background){margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;padding:1.25em 2.375em}@-webkit-keyframes a{to{-webkit-transform:rotate(1turn);transform:rotate(1turn)}}@keyframes a{to{-webkit-transform:rotate(1turn);transform:rotate(1turn)}}@-webkit-keyframes b{0%{background-position:0 0}to{background-position:30px 0}}@keyframes b{0%{background-position:0 0}to{background-position:30px 0}}amp-anim.amp-wp-enforced-sizes,amp-img.amp-wp-enforced-sizes{object-fit:contain}amp-anim img,amp-anim noscript,amp-img img,amp-img noscript{image-rendering:inherit;object-fit:inherit;object-position:inherit}.aligncenter,.alignleft{margin-top:1em;margin-right:auto;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:auto}.alignleft{float:left}.aligncenter{display:block;text-align:center;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.amp-wp-enforced-sizes{max-width:100%;margin:0 auto}html{background:#0a5f85}body{background:#fff;color:#353535;font-family:Georgia,"Times New Roman",Times,Serif;font-weight:300;line-height:1.75}p,ul,figure{margin:0 0 1em;padding:0}a,a:visited{color:#0a5f85}a:hover,a:active,a:focus{color:#353535}.amp-wp-meta,.amp-wp-header div,.amp-wp-title,.wp-caption-text,.amp-wp-tax-category,.amp-wp-tax-tag,.amp-wp-comments-link,.amp-wp-footer p,.back-to-top{font-family:-apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,"Segoe UI","Roboto","Oxygen-Sans","Ubuntu","Cantarell","Helvetica Neue",sans-serif}.amp-wp-header{background-color:#0a5f85}.amp-wp-header div{color:#fff;font-size:1em;font-weight:400;margin:0 auto;max-width:calc(840px - 32px);padding:.875em 16px;position:relative}.amp-wp-header a{color:#fff;text-decoration:none}.amp-wp-header .amp-wp-site-icon{background-color:#fff;border:1px solid #fff;border-radius:50%;position:absolute;right:18px;top:10px}.amp-wp-article{color:#353535;font-weight:400;margin:1.5em auto;max-width:840px;overflow-wrap:break-word;word-wrap:break-word}.amp-wp-article-header{align-items:center;align-content:stretch;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:space-between;margin:1.5em 16px 0}.amp-wp-title{color:#353535;display:block;flex:1 0 100%;font-weight:900;margin:0 0 .625em;width:100%}.amp-wp-meta{color:#696969;display:inline-block;flex:2 1 50%;font-size:.875em;line-height:1.5em;margin:0 0 1.5em;padding:0}.amp-wp-article-header .amp-wp-meta:last-of-type{text-align:right}.amp-wp-article-header .amp-wp-meta:first-of-type{text-align:left}.amp-wp-byline amp-img,.amp-wp-byline .amp-wp-author{display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle}.amp-wp-byline amp-img{border:1px solid #0a5f85;border-radius:50%;position:relative;margin-right:6px}.amp-wp-posted-on{text-align:right}.amp-wp-article-featured-image{margin:0 0 1em}.amp-wp-article-featured-image img:not(amp-img){max-width:100%;height:auto;margin:0 auto}.amp-wp-article-featured-image amp-img{margin:0 auto}.amp-wp-article-featured-image.wp-caption .wp-caption-text{margin:0 18px}.amp-wp-article-content{margin:0 16px}.amp-wp-article-content ul{margin-left:1em}.amp-wp-article-content .wp-caption{max-width:100%}.amp-wp-article-content amp-img{margin:0 auto}.amp-wp-article-content amp-img.alignleft{margin:0 16px 1em 0}.wp-caption{padding:0}.wp-caption.alignleft{margin-right:16px}.wp-caption .wp-caption-text{border-bottom:1px solid #c2c2c2;color:#696969;font-size:.875em;line-height:1.5em;margin:0;padding:.66em 10px .75em}.amp-wp-article-footer .amp-wp-meta{display:block}.amp-wp-tax-category,.amp-wp-tax-tag{color:#696969;font-size:.875em;line-height:1.5em;margin:1.5em 16px}.amp-wp-comments-link{color:#696969;font-size:.875em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center;margin:2.25em 0 1.5em}.amp-wp-comments-link a{border-style:solid;border-color:#c2c2c2;border-width:1px 1px 2px;border-radius:4px;background-color:transparent;color:#0a5f85;cursor:pointer;display:block;font-size:14px;font-weight:600;line-height:18px;margin:0 auto;max-width:200px;padding:11px 16px;text-decoration:none;width:50%;-webkit-transition:background-color .2s ease;transition:background-color .2s ease}.amp-wp-footer{border-top:1px solid #c2c2c2;margin:calc(1.5em - 1px) 0 0}.amp-wp-footer div{margin:0 auto;max-width:calc(840px - 32px);padding:1.25em 16px 1.25em;position:relative}.amp-wp-footer h2{font-size:1em;line-height:1.375em;margin:0 0 .5em}.amp-wp-footer p{color:#696969;font-size:.8em;line-height:1.5em;margin:0 85px 0 0}.amp-wp-footer a{text-decoration:none}.back-to-top{bottom:1.275em;font-size:.8em;font-weight:600;line-height:2em;position:absolute;right:16px}@font-face{font-family:"social-logos";src:url("data:application/octet-stream;base64,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") format("woff2");font-weight:normal;font-style:normal}amp-social-share{border-radius:50%;color:#fff;-webkit-border-radius:50%;position:relative;line-height:1;width:32px;height:32px;margin:0 5px 5px 0;vertical-align:middle}amp-social-share::before{display:inline-block;font:normal 18px/1 "social-logos";padding:7px;position:relative;top:1px;vertical-align:top;text-align:center}amp-social-share[type='email']{background:#e9e9e9;color:#656565}amp-social-share[type='email']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='tumblr']{background:#2c4762}amp-social-share[type='tumblr']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='facebook']{background:#0866ff}amp-social-share[type='facebook']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='twitter']{background:#00acee}amp-social-share[type='twitter']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='pinterest']{background:#ca1f27}amp-social-share[type='pinterest']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='telegram']{background:#08c}amp-social-share[type='telegram']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='linkedin']{background:#0077b5}amp-social-share[type='linkedin']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='pocket']{background:#ee4056}amp-social-share[type='pocket']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='reddit']{background:#cee3f8;color:#555}amp-social-share[type='reddit']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='skype']{background:#00aff0}amp-social-share[type='skype']::before{content:""}amp-social-share[type='whatsapp']{background:#43d854}amp-social-share[type='whatsapp']::before{content:""}.jp-related-posts-i2__list{--hgap:1rem;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;column-gap:var(--hgap);row-gap:2rem;margin:0;padding:0;list-style-type:none}.jp-related-posts-i2__post{display:flex;flex-direction:column;flex-basis:calc(( 100% - var(--hgap) ) / 2)}.jp-related-posts-i2__post:nth-last-child(n+3):first-child,.jp-related-posts-i2__post:nth-last-child(n+3):first-child ~ *{flex-basis:calc(( 100% - var(--hgap) * 2 ) / 3)}.jp-related-posts-i2__post:nth-last-child(4):first-child,.jp-related-posts-i2__post:nth-last-child(4):first-child ~ *{flex-basis:calc(( 100% - var(--hgap) ) / 2)}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-link{display:flex;flex-direction:column;row-gap:.5rem;width:100%;margin-bottom:1rem;line-height:1.2}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-link:focus-visible{outline-offset:2px}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-img{order:-1;max-width:100%}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-defs{margin:0;list-style-type:unset}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-defs dt{position:absolute;width:1px;height:1px;overflow:hidden;clip:rect(1px,1px,1px,1px);white-space:nowrap}.jp-related-posts-i2__post-defs dd{margin:0}.jp-relatedposts-i2[data-layout="list"] .jp-related-posts-i2__list{display:block}.jp-relatedposts-i2[data-layout="list"] .jp-related-posts-i2__post{margin-bottom:2rem}@media only screen and (max-width: 640px){.jp-related-posts-i2__list{display:block}.jp-related-posts-i2__post{margin-bottom:2rem}}.amp-wp-07e84a6:not(#_#_#_#_#_){width:373px}.amp-wp-bc47779:not(#_#_#_#_#_){width:332px}.amp-wp-faa2555:not(#_#_#_#_#_){width:600px}
|
||
|
||
/*# sourceURL=amp-custom.css */</style><link rel="canonical" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2023/02/16/opening-doors-contemporary-african-american-academic-surgeons/"><title>Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons – Circulating Now from the NLM Historical Collections</title><script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"http://schema.org","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Circulating Now from the NLM Historical Collections","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/circulating-nih-logo-v3.png?fit=232%2C60\u0026ssl=1"}},"@type":"BlogPosting","mainEntityOfPage":"https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2023/02/16/opening-doors-contemporary-african-american-academic-surgeons/","headline":"Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons","datePublished":"2023-02-16T11:00:20-05:00","dateModified":"2024-02-16T14:29:08-05:00","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Circulating Now"},"image":"https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?fit=900%2C400\u0026ssl=1"}</script></head>
|
||
|
||
<body class="">
|
||
|
||
<header id="top" class="amp-wp-header">
|
||
<div>
|
||
<a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/">
|
||
<amp-anim src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/circulating-now-512.gif?fit=32%2C32&ssl=1" width="32" height="32" class="amp-wp-site-icon amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" data-hero-candidate="" alt="Site icon" layout="intrinsic" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic"><i-amphtml-sizer slot="i-amphtml-svc" class="i-amphtml-sizer"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBoZWlnaHQ9IjMyIiB3aWR0aD0iMzIiIHhtbG5zPSJodHRwOi8vd3d3LnczLm9yZy8yMDAwL3N2ZyIgdmVyc2lvbj0iMS4xIi8+"></i-amphtml-sizer><noscript><img src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/circulating-now-512.gif?fit=32%2C32&ssl=1" width="32" height="32" alt="Site icon"></noscript></amp-anim>
|
||
<span class="amp-site-title">
|
||
Circulating Now from the NLM Historical Collections </span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</header>
|
||
|
||
<article class="amp-wp-article">
|
||
<header class="amp-wp-article-header">
|
||
<h1 class="amp-wp-title">Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons</h1>
|
||
<div class="amp-wp-meta amp-wp-byline">
|
||
<amp-img src="https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/a4760ce4198e67f81f3d292d8995ac11?s=72&d=mm&r=pg" srcset="
|
||
https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/a4760ce4198e67f81f3d292d8995ac11?s=24&d=mm&r=pg 1x,
|
||
https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/a4760ce4198e67f81f3d292d8995ac11?s=48&d=mm&r=pg 2x,
|
||
https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/a4760ce4198e67f81f3d292d8995ac11?s=72&d=mm&r=pg 3x
|
||
" alt="Circulating Now" width="24" height="24" layout="fixed" class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" style="width:24px;height:24px" i-amphtml-layout="fixed"></amp-img>
|
||
<span class="amp-wp-author author vcard">Circulating Now</span>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="amp-wp-meta amp-wp-posted-on">
|
||
<time datetime="2023-02-16T16:00:20+00:00">
|
||
2 years ago </time>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</header>
|
||
|
||
<figure class="amp-wp-article-featured-image wp-caption">
|
||
<amp-img width="840" height="373" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?fit=840%2C373&ssl=1" class="attachment-large size-large wp-post-image amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" alt="Logo for the exhibition Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?w=900&ssl=1 900w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?resize=300%2C133&ssl=1 300w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?resize=768%2C341&ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?resize=840%2C373&ssl=1 840w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 840px) 100vw, 840px" data-hero-candidate="" layout="intrinsic" disable-inline-width="" data-hero i-amphtml-ssr i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic"><i-amphtml-sizer slot="i-amphtml-svc" class="i-amphtml-sizer"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBoZWlnaHQ9IjM3MyIgd2lkdGg9Ijg0MCIgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIiB2ZXJzaW9uPSIxLjEiLz4="></i-amphtml-sizer><img class="i-amphtml-fill-content i-amphtml-replaced-content" decoding="async" loading="lazy" alt="Logo for the exhibition Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?fit=840%2C373&ssl=1" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?w=900&ssl=1 900w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?resize=300%2C133&ssl=1 300w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?resize=768%2C341&ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OD_feature.png?resize=840%2C373&ssl=1 840w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 840px) 100vw, 840px"></amp-img> </figure>
|
||
|
||
<div class="amp-wp-article-content">
|
||
<p><em>By Erika Mills ~</em></p>
|
||
<figure id="attachment_26141" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-26141" class="wp-caption alignleft amp-wp-07e84a6" data-amp-original-style="width: 373px"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Operating_theater.jpg?ssl=1"><amp-img class="wp-image-26141 amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" title="The Frederick Douglass Memorial Hospital and Training School served the black community of Philadelphia from throughout the 20th century." src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Operating_theater.jpg?resize=373%2C224&ssl=1" alt="A historical photograph of three African American men and two African American women operate on an African American man lying on a gurney" width="373" height="224" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Operating_theater.jpg?w=600&ssl=1 600w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Operating_theater.jpg?resize=300%2C181&ssl=1 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 373px) 100vw, 373px" layout="intrinsic" disable-inline-width="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic"><i-amphtml-sizer slot="i-amphtml-svc" class="i-amphtml-sizer"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBoZWlnaHQ9IjIyNCIgd2lkdGg9IjM3MyIgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIiB2ZXJzaW9uPSIxLjEiLz4="></i-amphtml-sizer><noscript><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" title="The Frederick Douglass Memorial Hospital and Training School served the black community of Philadelphia from throughout the 20th century." src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Operating_theater.jpg?resize=373%2C224&ssl=1" alt="A historical photograph of three African American men and two African American women operate on an African American man lying on a gurney" width="373" height="224" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Operating_theater.jpg?w=600&ssl=1 600w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Operating_theater.jpg?resize=300%2C181&ssl=1 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 373px) 100vw, 373px"></noscript></amp-img></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-26141" class="wp-caption-text">Operating room photo from <em>Frederick Douglass Memorial Hospital Annual Report</em>, ca. 1900<br><em><a href="https://catalog.nlm.nih.gov/permalink/01NLM_INST/1o1phhn/alma993776723406676">National Library of Medicine #52711460R</a></em></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p>African Americans have always practiced medicine, as physicians, healers, midwives, or “root doctors.” Early black physicians became skilled practitioners, trained generations of physicians, surgeons, and nurses, and improved health care for African American communities. Today’s African American doctors continue the traditions of achievement and mentorship. <em><a href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/opening-doors/index.html">Opening Doors: Contemporary African American Academic Surgeons</a></em> celebrates the accomplishments of African American medical pioneers and highlights contemporary surgeons and educators who exemplify excellence in their fields and teach future African American physicians. This online exhibition is an adaptation of a 2007 display produced by the National Library of Medicine, in partnership with the Reginald F. Lewis Museum of Maryland African American History and Culture.</p>
|
||
<p>Here are some highlights.</p>
|
||
<p>In 1895, African American surgeon, Nathan Mossell, M.D. (1856–1946), founded Frederick Douglass Memorial Hospital and Training School, which served the black community in Philadelphia and provided professional opportunities for black physicians and nurses until 1948, when it merged with Mercy Hospital. Dr. Mossell advocated for postgraduate training for physicians, an uncommon practice at the time.</p>
|
||
<figure id="attachment_26137" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-26137" class="wp-caption aligncenter amp-wp-bc47779" data-amp-original-style="width: 332px"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB21983.jpg?ssl=1"><amp-img class="aligncenter amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" title="Nathan Mossell, M.D., was attending surgeon, chief of staff, and medical director at Frederick Douglass Memorial Hospital for 38 years" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB21983.jpg?resize=332%2C544&ssl=1" alt="Historical portrait of an African American man" width="332" height="544" layout="intrinsic" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic"><i-amphtml-sizer slot="i-amphtml-svc" class="i-amphtml-sizer"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBoZWlnaHQ9IjU0NCIgd2lkdGg9IjMzMiIgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIiB2ZXJzaW9uPSIxLjEiLz4="></i-amphtml-sizer><noscript><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" title="Nathan Mossell, M.D., was attending surgeon, chief of staff, and medical director at Frederick Douglass Memorial Hospital for 38 years" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB21983.jpg?resize=332%2C544&ssl=1" alt="Historical portrait of an African American man" width="332" height="544"></noscript></amp-img></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-26137" class="wp-caption-text">Nathan F. Mossell, M.D., ca. 1882<br><em>Courtesy Collections of the University of Pennsylvania Archives</em></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p>Levi Watkins, Jr., M.D., (1944-2015) was a cardiac surgeon, professor of cardiac surgery and associate dean of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and a civil rights activist. He performed the first human implantation of the automatic defibrillator and largely due to his efforts, the minority student population at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine increased by 400% over a four-year period.</p>
|
||
<figure id="attachment_26138" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-26138" class="wp-caption aligncenter amp-wp-faa2555" data-amp-original-style="width: 600px"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22013.jpg?ssl=1"><amp-img class="wp-image-26138 size-full amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" title="Dr. Watkins was the first African American graduate of Vanderbilt University School of Medicine in 1970." src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22013.jpg?resize=600%2C399&ssl=1" alt="Photograph of an African American man instructing with a model heart" width="600" height="399" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22013.jpg?w=600&ssl=1 600w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22013.jpg?resize=300%2C200&ssl=1 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" layout="intrinsic" disable-inline-width="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic"><i-amphtml-sizer slot="i-amphtml-svc" class="i-amphtml-sizer"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBoZWlnaHQ9IjM5OSIgd2lkdGg9IjYwMCIgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIiB2ZXJzaW9uPSIxLjEiLz4="></i-amphtml-sizer><noscript><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" title="Dr. Watkins was the first African American graduate of Vanderbilt University School of Medicine in 1970." src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22013.jpg?resize=600%2C399&ssl=1" alt="Photograph of an African American man instructing with a model heart" width="600" height="399" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22013.jpg?w=600&ssl=1 600w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22013.jpg?resize=300%2C200&ssl=1 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px"></noscript></amp-img></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-26138" class="wp-caption-text">Dr. Watkins demonstrates the automatic defibrillator on a heart model, 1980<br><em>Courtesy Ebony Magazine</em></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p>Among academic surgeons today, African Americans hold some of the most prestigious academic surgical positions in the United States. Carla M. Pugh, M.D., is a general surgeon and professor of surgery at Stanford University School of Medicine. She received her medical degree and surgical training at Howard University College of Medicine and received a PhD in Education from Stanford University.</p>
|
||
<figure id="attachment_26149" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-26149" class="wp-caption aligncenter amp-wp-faa2555" data-amp-original-style="width: 600px"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?ssl=1"><amp-img class="wp-image-26149 size-full amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" title="Dr. Pugh holds a patent for simulation technology used as teaching tools for medical students including simulators for pelvic, rectal and breast exams. " src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?resize=600%2C450&ssl=1" alt="An African American woman performs surgery" width="600" height="450" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?w=600&ssl=1 600w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?resize=300%2C225&ssl=1 300w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?resize=400%2C300&ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?resize=200%2C150&ssl=1 200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" layout="intrinsic" disable-inline-width="" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic"><i-amphtml-sizer slot="i-amphtml-svc" class="i-amphtml-sizer"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBoZWlnaHQ9IjQ1MCIgd2lkdGg9IjYwMCIgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIiB2ZXJzaW9uPSIxLjEiLz4="></i-amphtml-sizer><noscript><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" title="Dr. Pugh holds a patent for simulation technology used as teaching tools for medical students including simulators for pelvic, rectal and breast exams. " src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?resize=600%2C450&ssl=1" alt="An African American woman performs surgery" width="600" height="450" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?w=600&ssl=1 600w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?resize=300%2C225&ssl=1 300w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?resize=400%2C300&ssl=1 400w, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/OB22018.jpg?resize=200%2C150&ssl=1 200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px"></noscript></amp-img></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-26149" class="wp-caption-text">Dr. Carla Pugh performing surgery, date unknown<br><em>Courtesy Carla M. Pugh, M.D., Ph.D.</em></figcaption></figure>
|
||
<p>For more of <em>Opening Doors,</em> <a href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/opening-doors/index.html">visit the exhibition online</a>. Learn more about <a href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/about/exhibition/index.html">NLM exhibitions</a>.</p>
|
||
<p><em>Erika Mills is an exhibit specialist in the Exhibition Program, History of Medicine Division of the National Library of Medicine.</em></p>
|
||
<p> </p>
|
||
<div class="sharedaddy sd-sharing-enabled"><div class="robots-nocontent sd-block sd-social sd-social-icon sd-sharing"><h3 class="sd-title">Circulate this:</h3><div class="sd-content"><amp-social-share type="twitter" height="32px" width="32px" aria-label="Click to share on Twitter" title="Click to share on Twitter" class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" style="width:32px;height:32px" i-amphtml-layout="fixed"></amp-social-share><amp-social-share type="facebook" height="32px" width="32px" aria-label="Click to share on Facebook" title="Click to share on Facebook" data-param-app_id="249643311490" class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" style="width:32px;height:32px" i-amphtml-layout="fixed"></amp-social-share><amp-social-share type="pinterest" height="32px" width="32px" aria-label="Click to share on Pinterest" title="Click to share on Pinterest" class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" style="width:32px;height:32px" i-amphtml-layout="fixed"></amp-social-share><amp-social-share type="tumblr" height="32px" width="32px" aria-label="Click to share on Tumblr" title="Click to share on Tumblr" class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" style="width:32px;height:32px" i-amphtml-layout="fixed"></amp-social-share><amp-social-share type="reddit" height="32px" width="32px" aria-label="Click to share on Reddit" title="Click to share on Reddit" data-share-endpoint="https://reddit.com/submit?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcirculatingnow.nlm.nih.gov%2F2023%2F02%2F16%2Fopening-doors-contemporary-african-american-academic-surgeons%2F&title=Opening%20Doors%3A%20Contemporary%20African%20American%20Academic%20Surgeons" class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" style="width:32px;height:32px" i-amphtml-layout="fixed"></amp-social-share><amp-social-share type="linkedin" height="32px" width="32px" aria-label="Click to share on LinkedIn" title="Click to share on LinkedIn" class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" style="width:32px;height:32px" i-amphtml-layout="fixed"></amp-social-share><amp-social-share type="email" height="32px" width="32px" aria-label="Click to share on Email" title="Click to share on Email" data-target="_self" class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" style="width:32px;height:32px" i-amphtml-layout="fixed"></amp-social-share></div></div></div></div>
|
||
<nav class="jp-relatedposts-i2" data-layout="grid" aria-label="Related Posts"><ul class="jp-related-posts-i2__list" role="list" data-post-count="3"><li id="related-posts-item-67c7b82d40f14" class="jp-related-posts-i2__post"><a id="related-posts-item-67c7b82d40f14-label" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2014/04/04/a-civil-war-surgeons-books-rediscovered/" class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-link">A Civil War Surgeon’s Books Rediscovered<amp-img class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-img amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/augusta-touched-up_900_feature.png?fit=899%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200" alt="Alexander T. Augusta in Uniform." srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/augusta-touched-up_900_feature.png?fit=899%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/augusta-touched-up_900_feature.png?fit=899%2C400&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/augusta-touched-up_900_feature.png?fit=899%2C400&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x" width="350" height="200" layout="intrinsic" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic"><i-amphtml-sizer slot="i-amphtml-svc" class="i-amphtml-sizer"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBoZWlnaHQ9IjIwMCIgd2lkdGg9IjM1MCIgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIiB2ZXJzaW9uPSIxLjEiLz4="></i-amphtml-sizer><noscript><img loading="lazy" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/augusta-touched-up_900_feature.png?fit=899%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200" alt="Alexander T. Augusta in Uniform." srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/augusta-touched-up_900_feature.png?fit=899%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/augusta-touched-up_900_feature.png?fit=899%2C400&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/augusta-touched-up_900_feature.png?fit=899%2C400&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x" width="350" height="200"></noscript></amp-img></a><dl class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-defs"><dt>Date</dt><dd class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-date">April 4, 2014</dd><dt>In relation to</dt><dd class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-context"><a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/collections/">Collections</a></dd></dl></li><li id="related-posts-item-67c7b82d40f59" class="jp-related-posts-i2__post"><a id="related-posts-item-67c7b82d40f59-label" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2016/01/14/the-medical-civil-rights-movement-and-access-to-health-care/" class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-link">The Medical Civil Rights Movement and Access to Health Care<amp-img class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-img amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/a016709_feature-1.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200" alt="Exterior view of the Savannah Health Center. An African American woman is standing by an automobile." srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/a016709_feature-1.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/a016709_feature-1.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/a016709_feature-1.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x" width="350" height="200" layout="intrinsic" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic"><i-amphtml-sizer slot="i-amphtml-svc" class="i-amphtml-sizer"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBoZWlnaHQ9IjIwMCIgd2lkdGg9IjM1MCIgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIiB2ZXJzaW9uPSIxLjEiLz4="></i-amphtml-sizer><noscript><img loading="lazy" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/a016709_feature-1.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200" alt="Exterior view of the Savannah Health Center. An African American woman is standing by an automobile." srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/a016709_feature-1.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/a016709_feature-1.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/a016709_feature-1.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x" width="350" height="200"></noscript></amp-img></a><dl class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-defs"><dt>Date</dt><dd class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-date">January 14, 2016</dd><dt>In relation to</dt><dd class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-context"><a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/exhibitions/">Exhibitions</a></dd></dl></li><li id="related-posts-item-67c7b82d40f86" class="jp-related-posts-i2__post"><a id="related-posts-item-67c7b82d40f86-label" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/02/15/witness-to-history-anderson-r-abbott-civil-war-surgeon/" class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-link">Witness to History: Anderson R. Abbott, Civil War Surgeon<amp-img class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-img amp-wp-enforced-sizes i-amphtml-layout-intrinsic i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Abbott-lecture-ticket_1859_feature.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200" alt="A printed ticket for a lecture with Abbott's name written on it." srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Abbott-lecture-ticket_1859_feature.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Abbott-lecture-ticket_1859_feature.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Abbott-lecture-ticket_1859_feature.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x" width="350" height="200" layout="intrinsic" i-amphtml-layout="intrinsic"><i-amphtml-sizer slot="i-amphtml-svc" class="i-amphtml-sizer"><img alt="" aria-hidden="true" class="i-amphtml-intrinsic-sizer" role="presentation" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBoZWlnaHQ9IjIwMCIgd2lkdGg9IjM1MCIgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIiB2ZXJzaW9uPSIxLjEiLz4="></i-amphtml-sizer><noscript><img loading="lazy" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Abbott-lecture-ticket_1859_feature.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200" alt="A printed ticket for a lecture with Abbott's name written on it." srcset="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Abbott-lecture-ticket_1859_feature.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Abbott-lecture-ticket_1859_feature.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Abbott-lecture-ticket_1859_feature.jpg?fit=900%2C400&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x" width="350" height="200"></noscript></amp-img></a><dl class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-defs"><dt>Date</dt><dd class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-date">February 15, 2024</dd><dt>In relation to</dt><dd class="jp-related-posts-i2__post-context"><a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/collections/">Collections</a></dd></dl></li></ul></nav>
|
||
|
||
<footer class="amp-wp-article-footer">
|
||
<div class="amp-wp-meta amp-wp-tax-category">
|
||
Categories: <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/exhibitions/" rel="category tag">Exhibitions</a> </div>
|
||
|
||
<div class="amp-wp-meta amp-wp-tax-tag">
|
||
Tags: <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/african-american-history/" rel="tag">African American History</a>, <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/biography/" rel="tag">biography</a>, <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/education/" rel="tag">education</a>, <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/medical-schools/" rel="tag">medical schools</a>, <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/race/" rel="tag">race</a>, <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/surgeon/" rel="tag">surgeon</a> </div>
|
||
<div class="amp-wp-meta amp-wp-comments-link">
|
||
<a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2023/02/16/opening-doors-contemporary-african-american-academic-surgeons/#respond">
|
||
Leave a Comment </a>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</footer>
|
||
</article>
|
||
|
||
<footer class="amp-wp-footer">
|
||
<div>
|
||
<h2>Circulating Now from the NLM Historical Collections</h2>
|
||
<a href="#top" class="back-to-top">Back to top</a>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</footer>
|
||
|
||
|
||
<amp-pixel src="https://pixel.wp.com/g.gif?v=ext&blog=52242398&post=26131&tz=-5&srv=circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov&hp=atomic&ac=2&amp=1&host=circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov&rand=RANDOM&ref=DOCUMENT_REFERRER" class="i-amphtml-layout-fixed i-amphtml-layout-size-defined" style="width:1px;height:1px" i-amphtml-layout="fixed"></amp-pixel> <div id="amp-mobile-version-switcher">
|
||
<a rel="nofollow" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2023/02/16/opening-doors-contemporary-african-american-academic-surgeons/?noamp=mobile">
|
||
Exit mobile version </a>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
</body></html>
|