Alternative titles; symbols
HGNC Approved Gene Symbol: ATN1
SNOMEDCT: 68116008;
Cytogenetic location: 12p13.31 Genomic coordinates (GRCh38) : 12:6,924,459-6,942,321 (from NCBI)
| Location | Phenotype |
Phenotype MIM number |
Inheritance |
Phenotype mapping key |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 12p13.31 | Congenital hypotonia, epilepsy, developmental delay, and digital anomalies | 618494 | Autosomal dominant | 3 |
| Dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy | 125370 | Autosomal dominant | 3 |
The ATN1 gene encodes atrophin-1, a member of a class of evolutionarily conserved transcriptional corepressors involved in nuclear signaling. ATN1 is believed to play a role as a nuclear transcriptional regulator important for brain and other organ system development (summary by Palmer et al., 2019).
In the search for a candidate gene for dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA; 125370), an inherited neurodegenerative disorder that demonstrates genetic anticipation characteristic of unstable expansion of trinucleotide repeats, Koide et al. (1994) searched a catalog of genes expressed in human brain identified by Li et al. (1993) that contained trinucleotide repeats. One of these, B37, which was known to map to chromosome 12, was examined and found to show CAG repeat expansion (607462.0001) in 22 individuals with DRPLA. By screening adult human occipital cortex and fetal human brain cDNA libraries, Onodera et al. (1995) isolated a full-length DRPLA cDNA encoding a deduced 1,185-amino acid protein with a predicted molecular mass of 125 kD. The (CAG)n repeat that is expanded in patients with DRPLA is located at position 1462 and is predicted to code for a polyglutamine tract. There was high heterozygosity of the length of the polyglutamine tract, ranging from 8 to 35 repeat units in 140 normal chromosomes. Northern blot analysis revealed a 4.7-kb transcript that is widely expressed in various tissues, including heart, lung, kidney, placenta, skeletal muscle, and brain.
Using antibodies against a synthetic peptide corresponding to the sequence of the C-terminus of the DRPLA gene product, Yazawa et al. (1995) identified the DRPLA gene product in normal human brains as a protein of approximately 190 kD. They also found a larger protein of approximately 205 kD specifically in DRPLA brains. Immunohistochemically, the DRPLA gene product was observed mainly in neuronal cytoplasm. These results demonstrated the existence of the expanded CAG repeat gene product and supported the possibility that the expanded CAG-encoded polyglutamine stretch may participate in the pathologic process of similar trinucleotide repeat diseases.
Schmitt et al. (1995) isolated the complete coding sequence of the rat DRPLA gene and investigated its expression in different developmental stages of rodent tissues. In rat, the length of the (CAG)n repeat is 7 to 34 repeats with an average of 15, which is mildly reduced in comparison with the human repeats. Northern blot analysis demonstrated that in rodents the gene is already expressed during embryonic development. In addition, the transcript is predominantly represented in neuronal tissues throughout all developmental stages investigated. Oyake et al. (1997) cloned a mouse Drpla cDNA and found that the encoded protein is 92% identical to human DRPLA.
Takano et al. (1996) assigned the DRPLA gene to chromosome 12p13.31 by fluorescence in situ hybridization.
Oyake et al. (1997) mapped the mouse Drpla gene to chromosome 6 by interspecific backcross analysis.
Burke et al. (1996) demonstrated that synthetic polyglutamine peptides, DRPLA protein and huntingtin (613004) from unaffected individuals with normal-sized polyglutamine tracts bind to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (138400). The authors postulated that diseases characterized by the presence of an expanded CAG repeat may share a common metabolic pathogenesis involving GAPD as a functional component. Roses (1996) and Barinaga (1996) reviewed the findings.
Using the yeast 2-hybrid system, Wood et al. (1998) identified 5 atrophin-1 interacting proteins that bind to atrophin-1 in the vicinity of the polyglutamine tract. Four of the interactions were confirmed using in vitro binding assays. These interactors were found to be similar to huntingtin-interacting proteins, suggesting possible commonality of function between the 2 proteins responsible for the very similar diseases, Huntington disease (HD; 143100) and DRPLA.
Zhang et al. (2002) characterized a Drosophila gene encoding an atrophin family protein. Analysis of mutant phenotypes indicated that Drosophila atrophin is required in diverse developmental processes, including early embryonic patterning. Drosophila atrophin genetically interacts with the transcription repressor 'even-skipped' (see 142991) and is required for its repressive function in vivo. Drosophila atrophin directly binds to even-skipped in vitro. Furthermore, both human atrophin-1 and Drosophila atrophin repress transcription in vivo when tethered to DNA, and poly-Q expansion in atrophin-1 reduces this repressive activity.
Okamura-Oho et al. (2003) determined that the DRPLA protein is a phosphoprotein and that c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK; see 601158) is one of the major factors involved in its phosphorylation. Phosphorylation was demonstrated in a recombinant JNK activation system in vitro and also in overexpressing cells by transfection after JNK activation with osmotic pressure. Phosphorylation of serine-734 in the DRPLA protein was confirmed by a specific antibody raised against the phosphopeptide. Kinetic studies in the JNK recombinant system showed that expanded polyQ slightly reduced the affinity of JNK to the protein.
Using yeast 2-hybrid screens, coaffinity purification analysis of transfected HEK293 cells, and bioinformatic analysis, Lim et al. (2006) developed an interaction network for 54 human proteins involved in 23 inherited ataxias. By database analysis, they expanded the core network to include more distantly related interacting proteins that could function as genetic modifiers. RBPMS (601558) was a main hub in the network and interacted with many proteins, including the cerebellar ataxia-associated proteins ATN1 and QK1 (609590).
Dentatorubral-Pallidoluysian Atrophy
In 22 patients with dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA; 125370), Koide et al. (1994) identified unstable expansion of a CAG unit in the ATN1 gene (607462.0001), which they termed B37 after a cDNA clone previously identified by Li et al. (1993). Each patient was a heterozygote with 1 allele in the normal range (8-25 repeat units) and a second expanded allele with the range of 54-68 repeat units. There were no overlaps in the number of CAG repeat units between control chromosomes and DRPLA chromosomes. In 33 patients with DRPLA from 12 families, Nagafuchi et al. (1994) identified an expanded CAG repeat in the B37 clone. The repeat size varied from 7-23 in normal individuals and 1 allele was expanded to between 49-75 repeats in affected individuals.
Burke et al. (1994, 1994) demonstrated that affected members of the large African American family with Haw River syndrome had the same trinucleotide repeat expansion (607462.0001) in the ATN1 gene as that found in DRPLA.
Congenital Hypotonia, Epilepsy, Developmental Delay, and Digital Anomalies
In 8 unrelated children with congenital hypotonia, epilepsy, developmental delay, and digital anomalies (CHEDDA; 618494), Palmer et al. (2019) identified 8 different de novo heterozygous mutations in exon 7 of the ATN1 gene (see, e.g., 607462.0002-607462.0006), all resulting in substitutions within the highly conserved 16-amino acid histidine-rich 'HX repeat' motif near the C terminus. The mutations, which were found by exome sequencing and confirmed by Sanger sequencing, were not found in the gnomAD database. This HX repeat is distal to the expanded repeat responsible for DRPLA. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of a synthesized peptide containing 1 of the mutations (H1060Y; 607462.0005) showed that the mutation resulted in a perturbation of the structural and functional integrity of the HX repeat, and altered zinc-binding properties. Additional functional studies of the variants and studies of patient cells were not performed. However, Palmer et al. (2019) noted that de novo disruptions of a similar HX motif in the RERE gene (605226) and the AUTS2 gene (607270) have been noted in patients with neurocognitive phenotypes. ATN1 also lies within the critical region for Pallister-Killian syndrome (PKS; 601803), which has an overlapping phenotype. Despite the absence of these variants in gnomAD, all could be classified as 'variants of uncertain significance' according to ACMG guidelines.
Martins et al. (2003) stated that DRPLA is prevalent in Japan, but several families of non-Japanese ancestry had been published. To identify the origin of expanded alleles in 4 Portuguese families with DRPLA, they studied 2 intragenic SNPs in introns 1 and 3, in addition to the CAG repeat, of the DRPLA gene. The results showed that all 4 families shared the same haplotype, which was the same as that reported for Japanese DRPLA chromosomes. This haplotype is also the most frequent in Japanese normal alleles, whereas it was rare in Portuguese control chromosomes. The findings supported the suggestion that a founder DRPLA haplotype of Asian origin was introduced in Portugal and is responsible for the frequency of the disease in that country.
Genetic Anticipation
Koide et al. (1994) found a good correlation between the size of the (CAG)n repeat expansion and the age of onset. Patients with earlier onset tended to have a phenotype of progressive myoclonic epilepsy and larger expansions. They proposed that the wide variety of clinical manifestations of DRPLA can be explained by the variable unstable expansion of the CAG repeat. Although only 5 cases of paternal transmission and 2 cases of maternal transmission were analyzed, the length of the repeat unit was altered in all cases: the average change in repeat length for paternal transmission was an increase of 4.2 repeats, while that of maternal transmission was a decrease of 1.0 repeat.
Nagafuchi et al. (1994) also found that repeat size correlated closely with age of onset of symptoms and with disease severity. Expansion was usually associated with paternal transmission. Komure et al. (1995) analyzed CAG trinucleotide repeats in 71 individuals from 12 Japanese DRPLA pedigrees that included 38 affected individuals. Normal alleles varied from 7 to 23 repeats, whereas affected individuals had from 53 to 88 repeats. Like Koide et al. (1994) and Nagafuchi et al. (1994), they found a significant negative correlation between CAG repeat length and age of onset. In 80% of the paternal transmissions, there was an increase of more than 5 repeats, whereas all the maternal transmissions showed either a decrease or an increase of fewer than 5 repeats.
Aoki et al. (1994) demonstrated that anticipation with expansion of the CAG repeat can occur through mothers as well as through fathers. They investigated 2 families in which offspring showed progressive myoclonic epilepsy with onset in childhood. In 1 family, patients of the first generation showed mild cerebellar ataxia with onset at 52 to 60 years. A patient of the second generation, the mother, showed severe ataxia with onset in the early thirties. The offspring in the third generation showed mental retardation, convulsions and myoclonus beginning at age 8. Sano et al. (1994) studied 4 families and also demonstrated anticipation. Older-onset patients suffered from cerebellar ataxia with or without dementia, whereas younger-onset patients presented as progressive myoclonus epilepsy syndrome, consisting of mental retardation, dementia, and cerebellar ataxia as well as epilepsy and myoclonus. Anticipation with paternal transmission was significantly greater than with maternal transmission.
Sato et al. (1995) reported homozygosity for a modest (57-repeat) triplet repeat in a man with early onset of DRPLA at age 17. His parents were first cousins and were neurologically normal at ages 73 and 71, in spite of having 57 CAG repeats in heterozygous state. Four of the proband's sibs died at age 12 with the phenotype of progressive myoclonic epilepsy. These findings supported the hypothesis that the clinical features of DRPLA, like those of Machado-Joseph disease, are influenced by the dosage of expansion of triplet repeats, unlike Huntington disease, in which the homozygous state does not appear to be different clinically from the heterozygous state.
Norremolle et al. (1995) described a Danish family in which affected persons in at least 3 generations had been thought to be suffering from Huntington disease. Because analysis of the huntingtin gene revealed normal alleles and because some of the patients had seizures, they analyzed the B37 gene and found significantly elongated CAG repeats, as had been reported in cases of DRPLA. Norremolle et al. (1995) reported that affected persons with almost identical repeat lengths presented very different symptoms. Both expansion and contraction in paternal transmission was observed.
Ikeuchi et al. (1996) analyzed the segregation patterns of 411 transmissions of 24 DRPLA pedigrees and 80 transmissions in 7 Machado-Joseph disease (MJD; 109150) pedigrees, with the diagnoses confirmed by molecular testing. Significant distortions in favor of transmission of the mutant alleles were found in male meiosis, where the mutant alleles were transmitted to 62% of all offspring in DRPLA (P less than 0.01) and 73% in MJD (P less than 0.01). The results were considered consistent with meiotic drive in both disorders. The authors commented that since more prominent meiotic instability of the length of the CAG trinucleotide repeats is observed in male meiosis than in female meiosis and since meiotic drive is observed only in male meiosis, these results raised the possibility that a common molecular mechanism underlies the meiotic drive and the meiotic instability in male meiosis.
On the basis of studies in an extensively affected Tennessee family, Potter (1996) emphasized the intrafamilial variability and lack of close correlation between age of onset and (CAG)n repeat number in this disease. The studies were done on DNA derived from leukocytes; tissue-specific instability (somatic mosaicism) has been reported in DRPLA.
Takiyama et al. (1999) determined the CAG repeat size in 427 single sperm from 2 men with DRPLA. The mean variance of the change in the CAG repeat size in sperm from the DRPLA patients (288.0) was larger than any variances of the CAG repeat size in sperm from patients with Machado-Joseph disease (38.5), Huntington disease (69.0), and spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (16.3; 313200), which is consistent with the clinical observation that the genetic anticipation on the paternal transmission of DRPLA is the most prominent among CAG repeat diseases. The variance was different in the 2 patients (51.0 vs 524.9, P greater than 0.0001). The segregation ratio of normal to expanded allele sperm was 1:1.
To investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying CAG repeat instability, Sato et al. (1999) established 3 transgenic lines, each harboring a single copy of a full-length human mutant DRPLA gene carrying a CAG repeat expansion. These transgenic mice exhibited an age-dependent increase (+0.31 per year) in male transmission and an age-dependent contraction (-1.21 per year) in female transmission. Similar tendencies in intergenerational instabilities were also observed in human DRPLA parent-offspring pairs. The intergenerational instabilities of the CAG repeats may be interpreted as being derived from the instability occurring during continuous cell division of spermatogonia in the male, and that occurring during the period of meiotic arrest in the female. The transgenic mice also exhibited an age-dependent increase in the degree of somatic mosaicism that occurred in a cell lineage-dependent manner, with the size range of CAG repeats being smaller in the cerebellum than in other tissues, including the cerebrum, which was consistent with observations in autopsied tissues of DRPLA patients. Thus, the transgenic mice described by Sato et al. (1999) exhibited age-dependent intergenerational and somatic instabilities of expanded CAG repeats comparable with those observed in human DRPLA patients, and should therefore serve as good models for investigating the molecular mechanisms of instabilities of CAG repeats.
In comparing transgenic mice bearing either full-length atrophin-1 or partial huntingtin trans-proteins to wildtype, Luthi-Carter et al. (2002) reported that there was considerable overlap in the alteration of gene expression between the 2 models, at least in the cerebellum. The authors concluded that polyglutamine-induced changes may be independent of their protein context.
Sato et al. (2009) generated a DRPLA Q129 mouse resulting from en masse expansion of the 76 CAG repeat in a Q76 mouse breeding program. Only the Q129 mice exhibited devastating progressive neurologic phenotypes similar to those of juvenile-onset DRPLA patients. Electrophysiologic studies demonstrated age-dependent and region-specific presynaptic dysfunction in the globus pallidus and cerebellum. Progressive shrinkage of distal dendrites of Purkinje cells and decreased currents through AMPA receptors (see 138248) and GABA-A (see 137160) receptors in CA1 neurons were also observed. The Q129 mice developed progressive brain atrophy but no obvious neuronal loss, associated with massive neuronal intranuclear accumulation (NIA) of mutant proteins with expanded polyQ stretches starting on postnatal day 4, whereas NIA in the Q76 mice appeared later with regional specificity to the vulnerable regions of DRPLA. Expression profile analysis demonstrated age-dependent downregulation of genes, including those relevant to synaptic functions and CREB (123810)-dependent genes. Sato et al. (2009) suggested that neuronal dysfunction without neuronal death is the essential pathophysiologic process and that the age-dependent NIA is associated with nuclear dysfunction including transcriptional dysregulations.
In 22 patients with dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA; 125370), Koide et al. (1994) identified unstable expansion of a CAG unit in the DRPLA gene, which they termed B37 after a cDNA clone previously identified by Li et al. (1993). Each patient was a heterozygote with 1 allele in the normal range (8-25 repeat units) and a second expanded allele with the range of 54-68 repeat units. There were no overlaps in the number of CAG repeat units between control chromosomes and DRPLA chromosomes.
Burke et al. (1994, 1994) demonstrated that affected members of the large African American family with Haw River syndrome had a trinucleotide repeat expansion in the ATN1 gene that was identical to that found in DRPLA, a frequent disorder in Japanese but rare in Europeans. In addition to the difference in racial frequency, the clinical expression and pathology of Haw River syndrome differed from that of the disease as observed in the Japanese: seizures were a consistent feature, there was no myoclonus, basal ganglion calcification was common, and neuronal loss was prominent in the globus pallidus. Burke et al. (1994, 1994) suggested that the difference in racial frequency is probably due to differences in the repeat size. The frequency of the repeat allele of intermediate size was very low in Europeans, somewhat higher in African Americans, and relatively high (5-10%) in Japanese.
In a 3-year-old boy of Argentinian descent (patient 1) with congenital hypotonia, epilepsy, developmental delay, and digital anomalies (CHEDDA; 618494), Palmer et al. (2019) identified a de novo heterozygous c.3160C-A transversion in exon 7 of the ATN1 gene, resulting in a his1054-to-asn (H1054N) substitution at a highly conserved His residue in the 16-amino acid 'HX repeat' motif near the C terminus. The mutation, which was found by exome sequencing and confirmed by Sanger sequencing, was not found in the gnomAD database. Functional studies of the variant and studies of patient cells were not performed.
In a 1-year-old boy of Hispanic descent (patient 2) with congenital hypotonia, epilepsy, developmental delay, and digital anomalies (CHEDDA; 618494), Palmer et al. (2019) identified a de novo heterozygous c.3172C-T transition in exon 7 of the ATN1 gene, resulting in a his1058-to-tyr (H1058Y) substitution at a highly conserved His residue in the 16-amino acid 'HX repeat' motif near the C terminus. The mutation which was found by exome sequencing and confirmed by Sanger sequencing, was not found in the gnomAD database. Functional studies of the variant and studies of patient cells were not performed.
In a 5-year-old girl of Hispanic descent (patient 3) with congenital hypotonia, epilepsy, developmental delay, and digital anomalies (CHEDDA; 618494), Palmer et al. (2019) identified a de novo heterozygous 6-bp insertion (c.3177_3178insAACCTG) in exon 7 of the ATN1 gene, resulting in a Ser1059_His1060insAsnLeu substitution in the highly conserved 16-amino acid 'HX repeat' motif near the C terminus. The mutation, which was found by exome sequencing and confirmed by Sanger sequencing, was not found in the gnomAD database. Functional studies of the variant and studies of patient cells were not performed.
In a 9-year-old girl of Saudi descent (patient 5) with congenital hypotonia, epilepsy, developmental delay, and digital anomalies (CHEDDA; 618494), Palmer et al. (2019) identified a de novo heterozygous c.3178C-T transition in exon 7 of the ATN1 gene, resulting in a his1060-to-tyr (H1060Y) substitution at a highly conserved His residue in the 16-amino acid 'HX repeat' motif near the C terminus. The mutation, which was found by exome sequencing and confirmed by Sanger sequencing, was not found in the gnomAD database. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of a synthesized peptide containing the H1060Y variant showed that the mutation resulted in a perturbation of the structural and functional integrity of the HX repeat, and altered zinc-binding properties. Additional functional studies of the variant and studies of patient cells were not performed.
In a French girl (patient 8) who died at 2 months of age with congenital hypotonia, epilepsy, developmental delay, and digital anomalies (CHEDDA; 618494), Palmer et al. (2019) identified a de novo heterozygous c.3185A-G transition in exon 7 of the ATN1 gene, resulting in a his1062-to-arg (H1062R) substitution at a highly conserved His residue in the 16-amino acid 'HX repeat' motif near the C terminus. The mutation, which was found by exome sequencing and confirmed by Sanger sequencing, was not found in the gnomAD database. The patient had previously been reported by Mosca et al. (2007). Functional studies of the variant and studies of patient cells were not performed.
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