Clinical characteristics.

Progressive myoclonus epilepsy, Lafora type (also known as Lafora disease) is characterized by focal occipital seizures presenting as transient blindness or visual hallucinations and fragmentary, symmetric, or generalized myoclonus occurring in previously healthy individuals. Typical age of onset is eight to 19 years (peak: age14-16 years). Generalized tonic-clonic seizures, atypical absence seizures, atonic seizures, and focal seizures with impaired awareness may also occur. The course of the disease is characterized by increasing frequency and intractability of seizures. Status epilepticus with any of the seizure types is common. Cognitive decline becomes apparent at or soon after the onset of seizures. Dysarthria and ataxia appear early, while spasticity appears late. Emotional disturbances and confusion are common in the early stages of the disease and are followed by dementia. Most affected individuals die within ten years of onset, usually from status epilepticus or from complications related to neurologic degeneration.

Diagnosis/testing.

The diagnosis of Lafora disease is established in a proband with characteristic neurologic findings and/or biallelic pathogenic variants in one of the two known causative genes, EPM2A or NHLRC1, identified by molecular genetic testing. On rare occasion, a skin biopsy to detect Lafora bodies is necessary to confirm the diagnosis.

Management.

Treatment of manifestations: Medical treatment in combination with physical therapy and psychosocial support. Regular evaluation and readjustment are required as the disease progresses. Anti-seizure medications are effective against generalized seizures but do not alter the progression of cognitive and behavioral manifestations. Overmedication in treating drug-resistant myoclonus is a risk. Gastrostomy feedings can decrease the risk of aspiration pneumonia when the disease is advanced.

Surveillance: Clinical and psychosocial evaluations throughout the teenage years. Monitoring of developmental progress and educational needs, in conjunction with behavioral assessments. Continuous assessment of feeding, nutritional status, and airway protection (including aspiration risk).

Agents/circumstances to avoid: Phenytoin as maintenance therapy; possibly lamotrigine, carbamazepine, and oxcarbazepine.

Genetic counseling.

Lafora disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. If both parents are known to be heterozygous for an EPM2A or NHLRC1 pathogenic variant, each sib of an affected individual has at conception a 25% chance of being affected, a 50% chance of being an asymptomatic carrier, and a 25% chance of being unaffected and not a carrier. Carrier testing for at-risk relatives, prenatal testing for at-risk pregnancies, and preimplantation genetic testing are possible if the pathogenic variants in the family are known.

Suggestive Findings

Lafora disease should be suspected in a previously healthy older child or adolescent (usually in the early teens) with the following clinical manifestations and family history:

Clinical manifestations

• Focal occipital seizures presenting as transient blindness or visual hallucinations
• Fragmentary, symmetric, or generalized myoclonus
• Generalized seizures including tonic-clonic seizures, absence seizures, or drop attacks
• Progressive neurologic degeneration including cognitive and/or behavioral deterioration, dysarthria, ataxia, and, at later stages, spasticity and dementia
• Slowing of EEG background activity, loss of alpha rhythm and sleep features, posteriorly dominant irregular spike-wave discharges, and photosensitivity on early EEGs
• Periodic acid Schiff-positive intracellular inclusion bodies (Lafora bodies) on skin biopsy (See Clinical Description.)
• Normal brain MRI at disease onset; progressive cortical atrophy possible later in the course of the disease

Family history is consistent with autosomal recessive inheritance (e.g., affected sibs and/or parental consanguinity). Absence of a known family history does not preclude the diagnosis.

Establishing the Diagnosis

The diagnosis of Lafora disease is established in a proband with characteristic neurologic findings and/or biallelic pathogenic (or likely pathogenic) variants in one of the genes listed in Table 1.

Note: (1) Per ACMG/AMP variant interpretation guidelines, the terms "pathogenic variant" and "likely pathogenic variant" are synonymous in a clinical setting, meaning that both are considered diagnostic and can be used for clinical decision making [Richards et al 2015]. Reference to "pathogenic variants" in this GeneReview is understood to include likely pathogenic variants. (2) Identification of biallelic variants of uncertain significance (or of one known pathogenic variant and one variant of uncertain significance) in the genes listed in Table 1 does not establish or rule out the diagnosis.

Molecular genetic testing approaches can include a combination of gene-targeted testing (single gene testing, multigene panel) and comprehensive genomic testing (exome sequencing, genome sequencing). Gene-targeted testing requires that the clinician determine which gene(s) are likely involved (see Option 1), whereas comprehensive genomic testing does not (see Option 2).

Clinical Description

Progressive myoclonus epilepsy, Lafora type, also known as Lafora disease, is a rare teenage-onset progressive myoclonus epilepsy. The term "myoclonus" is emphasized because this is a relatively infrequent neurologic symptom in teenagers. When seen in an otherwise healthy adolescent, it strongly suggests a common benign form of epilepsy, juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME). For this reason, most individuals with Lafora disease are briefly misdiagnosed with JME. However, while the EEG background in JME is normal, it is already abnormal (slow) when myoclonus appears in individuals with Lafora disease.

Lafora disease is associated with inexorable worsening of the epilepsy. Myoclonus gradually becomes near constant. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures gradually become intractable; atypical absences with or without myoclonus eventually take over. The affected individual's interactions become such that every thought, speech, feeding, etc., are interrupted, and each of these and other functions become slow and protracted. Walking ability is lost usually in most affected individuals before age 21 years. Within ten years of disease onset, most individuals are in a vegetative state and usually die in status epilepticus or complications of poor airway control.

To date, at least 300 individuals have been identified with Lafora disease [Orooj et al 2021, Zaganas et al 2021, d'Orsi et al 2022, Katz et al 2022, Krakhmal et al 2022, Liang et al 2022, Nordli et al 2022, Orsini et al 2022, Tang et al 2022, Zeka et al 2022, d'Orsi et al 2023, Ferrari Aggradi et al 2023, Pondrelli et al 2023, Duan et al 2024, Zhu et al 2024]. The following description of the phenotypic features associated with this condition is based on these reports.

Age of onset. Lafora disease typically starts during childhood or adolescence (range: age 8-19 years, peak: age 14-16 years), after a period of apparently normal development. Many affected individuals experience isolated febrile or nonfebrile seizures during infancy or early childhood. Intractable seizures rarely begin as early as age six years. In families with more than one affected individual, clinical manifestations such as subtle myoclonus, visual hallucinations, or headaches are noted earlier in subsequently affected children than in the proband [Minassian et al 2000b, Minassian 2002]. Intra- and interfamilial variability in age at onset is considerable [Gómez-Abad et al 2007, Lohi et al 2007].

Seizure types. The main seizure types in Lafora disease include myoclonic seizures and occipital seizures, although generalized tonic-clonic seizures, atypical absence seizures, atonic seizures, and focal seizures with impaired awareness may occur. Generalized seizures are rare in individuals who are treated, even years after disease onset.

Myoclonus can be fragmentary, symmetric, or massive (generalized). It occurs at rest and is exaggerated by action, photic stimulation, or excitement. Both negative (loss of tone) and positive (jerking) myoclonus can occur. Myoclonus usually disappears with sleep. Trains of massive myoclonus with relative preservation of consciousness have been reported. Myoclonus is the primary reason for early wheelchair dependency. In the advanced stages of the disease, affected individuals often have continuous generalized myoclonus.

Occipital seizures present as transient blindness, simple or complex visual hallucinations, photomyoclonic or photoconvulsive seizures, or migraines with scintillating scotomata [Berkovic et al 1993, Minassian et al 2000b]. Not all visual hallucinations in individuals with Lafora disease are epileptic in origin, as some respond initially to anti-psychotic, rather than anti-seizure, medications [Andrade et al 2005].

Progression. The course of the disease is characterized by increasing frequency and intractability of seizures. Status epilepticus with any of the previously mentioned seizure types is common. Cognitive decline becomes apparent at or soon after seizure onset. Dysarthria and ataxia appear early, while spasticity appears late. Emotional disturbance and confusion are common in the early stages of the disease and are followed by dementia. See Table 2 for a comparison of the findings at onset and later in the disease course.

By their mid-twenties, most affected individuals are in a vegetative state with continuous myoclonus and require tube feeding. Some maintain minimal interactions with the family such as a reflex-like smiling upon cajoling. Affected individuals who are not tube fed aspirate frequently because of seizures; death from aspiration pneumonia is common.

Most affected individuals die within ten years of onset, usually from status epilepticus or from complications related to neurologic deterioration [Turnbull et al 2016].

Genotype-Phenotype Correlations

Most pathogenic variants in NHLRC1 (EPM2B) and EPM2A (EPM2A) result in complete loss of function. Phenotypes associated with these variants are indistinguishable and represent classic Lafora disease. To date, pathogenic variants in EPM2A affecting splicing result in the same severe classic Lafora disease [Duan et al 2024].

There are reports of mild Lafora disease with slow disease progression in association with missense variants. For example, the NHLRC1 pathogenic variant p.Asp146Asn has been reported in association with an atypical milder form of Lafora disease consisting of later onset of symptoms, longer disease course, and extended preservation of daily activities [Ferlazzo et al 2014, Lanoiselée et al 2014].

Nomenclature

Progressive myoclonus epilepsy, Lafora type, also known as Lafora disease, is also referred to as myoclonic epilepsy of Lafora.

The term "progressive myoclonus epilepsy" (PME) covers a large and varied group of diseases characterized by myoclonus, generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and progressive neurologic deterioration [Genton et al 2016].

Prevalence

Exact prevalence figures for Lafora disease are lacking. Based on all published reports of Lafora disease-causing pathogenic variants to date, the overall global frequency is estimated at 4:1,000,000 [Turnbull et al 2016].

Lafora disease occurs worldwide. While relatively rare in the nonconsanguineous populations of the United States, Canada, China, and Japan, Lafora disease is relatively common in the Mediterranean basin of Spain, France, and Italy, in restricted regions of central Asia, India, Pakistan, northern Africa, and the Middle East, in ethnic isolates from the southern United States and Quebec, and in other parts of the world with a high rate of consanguinity [Delgado-Escueta et al 2001].

Within the Italian and Japanese populations, pathogenic variants in NHLRC1 are more common than pathogenic variants in EPM2A. Conversely, EPM2A pathogenic variants are more common in Spanish and French populations. Within the Indian and Arab populations, the distribution of pathogenic variants in the two genes is more or less even [Singh & Ganesh 2009, Lesca et al 2010].

Note: Lafora disease has not been reported in Finland, where founder effects for a number of genetic disorders are common, and where progressive myoclonic epilepsy type 1 (EPM1; Unverricht-Lundborg disease) has the highest prevalence [A Lehesjoki & R Kälviäinen, personal communication].

Evaluations Following Initial Diagnosis

To establish the extent of disease and needs in an individual diagnosed with Lafora disease, the evaluations summarized in Table 4 (if not performed as part of the evaluation that led to the diagnosis) are recommended.

Treatment of Manifestations

Supportive care to improve quality of life, maximize function, and reduce complications is recommended. This ideally involves multidisciplinary care by specialists in relevant fields (see Table 5).

Surveillance

To monitor existing manifestations, the individual's response to supportive care, and the emergence of new manifestations, the evaluations summarized in Table 6 are recommended.

Agents/Circumstances to Avoid

As in other forms of progressive myoclonic epilepsies, the use of phenytoin as maintenance therapy should be avoided.

Anecdotal reports describe possible exacerbation of myoclonus with the following:

• Lamotrigine [Cerminara et al 2004, Crespel et al 2005]
• Carbamazepine [Nanba & Maegaki 1999]
• Oxcarbazepine [Kaddurah & Holmes 2006]

Evaluation of Relatives at Risk

See Genetic Counseling for issues related to evaluation of at-risk relatives for genetic counseling purposes.

Pregnancy Management

Due to the severity of the disorder, individuals with Lafora disease typically do not have children. However, in cases of mild Lafora disease with slow disease progression (as reported with the p.Asp146Asn variant in NHLRC1), pregnancies could occur [Ferlazzo et al 2014]. The universal use of anti-seizure medications in individuals with Lafora disease, even when mild, warrant counseling regarding the potential consequences of fetal exposure to maternal anti-convulsant therapy.

See MotherToBaby for further information on medication use during pregnancy.

Therapies Under Investigation

An open-label trial with add-on perampanel in ten individuals with Lafora disease showed significant reduction in seizures greater than 74% from baseline in four individuals. Seven had major improvement in myoclonus. Three withdrew due to inefficacy or side effects. There was no improvement in disability or cognition [Goldsmith & Minassian 2016].

Search ClinicalTrials.gov in the US and EU Clinical Trials Register in Europe for access to information on clinical studies for a wide range of diseases and conditions.

Mode of Inheritance

Progressive myoclonus epilepsy, Lafora type (also known as Lafora disease), is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.

Risk to Family Members

Parents of a proband

• The parents of an affected child are presumed to be heterozygous for an EPM2A or NHLRC1 pathogenic variant.
• If a molecular diagnosis has been established in the proband, molecular genetic testing is recommended for the parents of a proband to confirm that both parents are heterozygous for an EPM2A or NHLRC1 pathogenic variant and to allow reliable recurrence risk assessment.
• If a pathogenic variant is detected in only one parent and parental identity testing has confirmed biological maternity and paternity, it is possible that one of the pathogenic variants identified in the proband occurred as a de novo event in the proband or as a postzygotic de novo event in a mosaic parent [Jónsson et al 2017]. If the proband appears to have homozygous pathogenic variants (i.e., the same two pathogenic variants), additional possibilities to consider include:
  • A single- or multiexon deletion in the proband that was not detected by sequence analysis and that resulted in the artifactual appearance of homozygosity;
  • Uniparental isodisomy for the parental chromosome with the pathogenic variant that resulted in homozygosity for the pathogenic variant in the proband.
• Heterozygotes (carriers) are asymptomatic and are not at risk of developing the disorder.

Sibs of a proband

• If both parents are known to be heterozygous for an EPM2A or NHLRC1 pathogenic variant, each sib of an affected individual has at conception a 25% chance of being affected, a 50% chance of being an asymptomatic carrier, and a 25% chance of being unaffected and not a carrier.
• Variability in age at onset among affected family members is considerable (see Genotype-Phenotype Correlations).
• Heterozygotes (carriers) are asymptomatic and are not at risk of developing the disorder.

Offspring of a proband

• The offspring of an individual with Lafora disease would be obligate heterozygotes (carriers) for a pathogenic variant in EPM2A or NHLRC1.
• Because of the early onset and rapid deterioration, individuals with Lafora disease typically do not reproduce.

Other family members. Each sib of the proband's parents is at a 50% risk of being a carrier of an EPM2A or NHLRC1 pathogenic variant.

Carrier Detection

Carrier testing for at-risk relatives requires prior identification of the EPM2A or NHLRC1 pathogenic variants in the family.

Related Genetic Counseling Issues

Family planning

• The optimal time for determination of genetic risk and discussion of the availability of prenatal/preimplantation genetic testing is before pregnancy.
• It is appropriate to offer genetic counseling (including discussion of potential risks to offspring and reproductive options) to young adults who are affected, are carriers, or are at risk of being carriers.
• It is appropriate to offer EPM2A and NHLRC1 molecular genetic testing for reproductive partners of individuals known to be heterozygous for a Lafora disease-related pathogenic variant, particularly if consanguinity is likely.

Prenatal Testing and Preimplantation Genetic Testing

Once the EPM2A or NHLRC1 pathogenic variants have been identified in an affected family member, prenatal and preimplantation genetic testing are possible.

Differences in perspective may exist among medical professionals and within families regarding the use of prenatal and preimplantation genetic testing. While most health care professionals would consider use of prenatal and preimplantation genetic testing to be a personal decision, discussion of these issues may be helpful.

Molecular Pathogenesis

EPM2A. This gene encodes a dual-specificity phosphatase called laforin and may be involved in the regulation of glycogen metabolism. The protein acts on complex carbohydrates to prevent glycogen hyperphosphorylation, thus avoiding the formation of insoluble aggregates. There are two isoforms of the laforin protein that have unique C termini [Ganesh et al 2002b, Ianzano et al 2004]. The carboxyl terminal of isoform B targets laforin to the nucleus, a feature that is not shared by the longer laforin isoform A. Ianzano et al [2004] demonstrated that disturbances in the physiologic functions of laforin isoform A underlie the pathogenesis of Lafora disease, and isoform B cannot functionally substitute for laforin isoform A. Remarkably, more recent data indicates that laforin's phosphatase function is dispensable insofar as Lafora bodies, the neurotoxic accumulations that characterize the disease, are concerned. Several experiments showed that inactivating laforin's phosphatase domain while keeping the rest of the protein intact does not lead to Lafora body formation [Nitschke et al 2017, Skurat et al 2024]. All indications at present are that malin, encoded by NHLRC1, the second gene associated with Lafora disease, is key [Sullivan et al 2019].

NHLRC1. NHLRC1 encodes E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase NHLRC1 (also known as malin), a 395-amino acid protein. Malin contains a zinc finger of the RING type and six NHL-repeat protein-protein interaction domains [Chan et al 2003b]. The pathology underlying Lafora disease consists of progressive formation of polyglucosans (insoluble glucose polysaccharides that precipitate and aggregate into concretized masses called Lafora bodies), resulting in neurodegeneration. Lafora bodies form in neuronal perikarya and in neuronal short processes (mostly dendrites). Lafora bodies in the neuronal processes are much smaller, but they massively outnumber Lafora bodies in the perikarya. Extraneurally, Lafora bodies also form in heart, liver, and skeletal muscle, but cause no symptoms in these organs [Turnbull et al 2011]. The current view on Lafora disease pathogenesis suggests that Lafora disease is predominantly caused by an impairment in chain-length regulation affecting only a small proportion of the cellular glycogen. The principal function of laforin (the gene product of EPM2A) relevant to Lafora disease is mediated through malin (the gene product of NHLRC1) and directed to preventing glycogen molecules with hyperextended chains. In the absence of either protein, some glycogen molecules precipitate and gradually over time aggregate and amass into Lafora bodies, which, reaching a certain threshold profusion (at age ~14 years in humans), initiate and then drive the progressive myoclonus epilepsy [Nitschke et al 2017, Sullivan et al 2017]. Laforin's key function appears to be the targeting of malin to glycogen for malin's E3 ubiquitin ligase to regulate certain yet unconfirmed proteins [Mitra et al 2023]. Suspected malin substrates are glycogen metabolism proteins [Skurat et al 2024].

Mechanism of disease causation

• EPM2A-related Lafora disease: loss of function
• NHLRC1-related Lafora disease: loss of function

EPM2A- and NHLRC1-specific laboratory technical considerations. NHLRC1 is a single-exon gene spanning 1,188 base pairs that has all of the proposed features of the consensus sequence of an eukaryotic translational initiation site at its 5' end and two putative polyadenylation signals at its 3' end.

Author Notes

Berge A Minassian, MD, directs the Child Neurology program at University of Texas Southwestern and co-directs the university's Gene Therapy Program. The two are intimately linked because most of Child Neurology is neurogenetic diseases. In addition to his work on developing gene therapies for childhood neurologic diseases, he has had an abiding interest in understanding the pathogenesis of Lafora disease, to which he has been committed for more than 30 years.

Author History

Eva Andermann, MD, PhD, FCCMG; McGill University (2007-2025)
Anna C Jansen, MD, PhD; Vrije Universiteit Brussel (2007-2025)
Berge Minassian, MD (2025-present)

Revision History

• 23 January 2025 (gm) Comprehensive update posted live
• 21 February 2019 (ha) Comprehensive update posted live
• 22 January 2015 (me) Comprehensive update posted live
• 3 November 2011 (me) Comprehensive update posted live
• 28 December 2007 (me) Review posted live
• 2 January 2007 (ea) Original submission

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