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Review
. 2016 May 21;2016(5):CD010351.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010351.pub2.

Participation in environmental enhancement and conservation activities for health and well-being in adults: a review of quantitative and qualitative evidence

Kerryn Husk  1 , Rebecca Lovell, Chris Cooper, Will Stahl-Timmins, Ruth Garside
Affiliations
Review

Participation in environmental enhancement and conservation activities for health and well-being in adults: a review of quantitative and qualitative evidence

Kerryn Husk et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: There is growing research and policy interest in the potential for using the natural environment to enhance human health and well-being. This resource may be underused as a health promotion tool to address the increasing burden of common health problems such as increased chronic diseases and mental health concerns. Outdoor environmental enhancement and conservation activities (EECA) (for instance unpaid litter picking, tree planting or path maintenance) offer opportunities for physical activity alongside greater connectedness with local environments, enhanced social connections within communities and improved self-esteem through activities that improve the locality which may, in turn, further improve well-being.

Objectives: To assess the health and well-being impacts on adults following participation in environmental enhancement and conservation activities.

Search methods: We contacted or searched the websites of more than 250 EECA organisations to identify grey literature. Resource limitations meant the majority of the websites were from UK, USA, Canada and Australia. We searched the following databases (initially in October 2012, updated October 2014, except CAB Direct, OpenGrey, SPORTDiscus, and TRIP Database), using a search strategy developed with our project advisory groups (predominantly leaders of EECA-type activities and methodological experts): ASSIA; BIOSIS; British Education Index; British Nursing Index; CAB Abstracts; Campbell Collaboration; Cochrane Public Health Specialized Register; DOPHER; EMBASE; ERIC; Global Health; GreenFILE; HMIC; MEDLINE-in-Process; MEDLINE; OpenGrey; PsychINFO; Social Policy and Practice; SPORTDiscus; TRoPHI; Social Services Abstracts; Sociological Abstracts; The Cochrane Library; TRIP database; and Web of Science. Citation and related article chasing was used. Searches were limited to studies in English published after 1990.

Selection criteria: Two review authors independently screened studies. Included studies examined the impact of EECA on adult health and well-being. Eligible interventions needed to include each of the following: intended to improve the outdoor natural or built environment at either a local or wider level; took place in urban or rural locations in any country; involved active participation; and were NOT experienced through paid employment.We included quantitative and qualitative research. Includable quantitative study designs were: randomised controlled trials (RCTs), cluster RCTs, quasi-RCTs, cluster quasi-RCTs, controlled before-and-after studies, interrupted-time-series, cohort studies (prospective or retrospective), case-control studies and uncontrolled before-and-after studies (uBA). We included qualitative research if it used recognised qualitative methods of data collection and analysis.

Data collection and analysis: One reviewer extracted data, and another reviewer checked the data. Two review authors independently appraised study quality using the Effective Public Health Practice Project tool (for quantitative studies) or Wallace criteria (for qualitative studies). Heterogeneity of outcome measures and poor reporting of intervention specifics prevented meta-analysis so we synthesised the results narratively. We synthesised qualitative research findings using thematic analysis.

Main results: Database searches identified 21,420 records, with 21,304 excluded at title/abstract. Grey literature searches identified 211 records. We screened 327 full-text articles from which we included 21 studies (reported in 28 publications): two case-studies (which were not included in the synthesis due to inadequate robustness), one case-control, one retrospective cohort, five uBA, three mixed-method (uBA, qualitative), and nine qualitative studies. The 19 studies included in the synthesis detailed the impacts to a total of 3,603 participants: 647 from quantitative intervention studies and 2630 from a retrospective cohort study; and 326 from qualitative studies (one not reporting sample size).Included studies shared the key elements of EECA defined above, but the range of activities varied considerably. Quantitative evaluation methods were heterogeneous. The designs or reporting of quantitative studies, or both, were rated as 'weak' quality with high risk of bias due to one or more of the following: inadequate study design, intervention detail, participant selection, outcome reporting and blinding.Participants' characteristics were poorly reported; eight studies did not report gender or age and none reported socio-economic status. Three quantitative studies reported that participants were referred through health or social services, or due to mental ill health (five quantitative studies), however participants' engagement routes were often not clear.Whilst the majority of quantitative studies (n = 8) reported no effect on one or more outcomes, positive effects were reported in six quantitative studies relating to short-term physiological, mental/emotional health, and quality-of-life outcomes. Negative effects were reported in two quantitative studies; one study reported higher levels of anxiety amongst participants, another reported increased mental health stress.The design or reporting, or both, of the qualitative studies was rated as good in three studies or poor in nine; mainly due to missing detail about participants, methods and interventions. Included qualitative evidence provided rich data about the experience of participation. Thematic analysis identified eight themes supported by at least one good quality study, regarding participants' positive experiences and related to personal/social identity, physical activity, developing knowledge, spirituality, benefits of place, personal achievement, psychological benefits and social contact. There was one report of negative experiences.

Authors' conclusions: There is little quantitative evidence of positive or negative health and well-being benefits from participating in EECA. However, the qualitative research showed high levels of perceived benefit among participants. Quantitative evidence resulted from study designs with high risk of bias, qualitative evidence lacked reporting detail. The majority of included studies were programme evaluations, conducted internally or funded by the provider.The conceptual framework illustrates the range of interlinked mechanisms through which people believe they potentially achieve health and well-being benefits, such as opportunities for social contact. It also considers potential moderators and mediators of effect.One main finding of the review is the inherent difficulty associated with generating robust evidence of effectiveness for complex interventions. We developed the conceptual framework to illustrate how people believed they benefited. Investigating such mechanisms in a subsequent theory-led review might be one way of examining evidence of effect for these activities.The conceptual framework needs further refinement through linked reviews and more reliable evidence. Future research should use more robust study designs and report key intervention and participant detail.

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Conflict of interest statement

RL previously worked with and for the co/authors (Dr Elizabeth O'Brien and Claudia Carter) of a number of the studies included in the review, though had no involvement with the included studies themselves.

There are no competing interests from any of the remaining review team.

Figures

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Study Flow diagram.
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EPHPP quality assessment scores for included quantitative (and quantitative element of mixed‐method) studies
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Wallace criteria quality assessment scores for included qualitative studies
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Changes in physiological health measures reported in quantitative studies
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5
Changes and differences in mental and emotional health measures reported in quantitative studies (studies are ordered alphabetically)
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Changes in quality of life (SF‐36) measures reported in quantitative studies (studies are ordered alphabetically)
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Changes in quality of life (SF‐12) measures reported in quantitative studies (studies are ordered alphabetically)
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Differences in other quality of life measures reported in quantitative studies (studies are ordered alphabetically)
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Changes and differences in additional (physical activity) outcomes reported in quantitative studies (studies are ordered alphabetically)
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Differences in additional (social measures) outcomes reported in quantitative studies
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Summary of findings, quantitative studies (studies are ordered alphabetically)
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Presence of qualitative themes in studies
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Final conceptual framework (Qualitative Synthesis: Proposed Links Between Conservation Activities and Health Outcomes), representing potential health and wellbeing impacts from participation in EECA.
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Grese 2000 {published data only}
    1. Grese R, Kaplan R, Ryan R, Buxton J. Psychological benefits of volunteering in stewardship programmes. In: Gobster P, Hull R editor(s). Restoring Nature: Perspectives from the Social Sciences and Humanities. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2000.
Griffiths 2011 {published data only}
    1. Griffiths E, Petrie L, Ellis C, Hartwell S, Brooks R. Evaluation of the Big Lottery Fund’s People and Places Programme Year 4 report. Aberaeron: Big Lottery Fund Wales, 2011.
Grunberger 2011 {published data only}
    1. Grunberger S, Omann I. Quality of life and sustainability. Links between sustainable behaviour, social capital and well‐being. Well‐being 2011. Birminham City University (18th‐19th July 2011), 2011.
Guiney 2009 {published data only}
    1. Guiney MS, Oberhauser KS. Conservation volunteers' connection to nature. Ecopsychology 2009;1(4):187‐97.
Guiney 2010 {published data only}
    1. Guiney MS. Caring for nature: Motivations for and outcomes of conservation volunteer work. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2010; Vol. 70, issue 9‐B:5407.
Haddow undated {published data only}
    1. Haddow A. Community involvement in urban renewal: Asians in Woodlands. Glasgow: Scottish Natural Heritage, Undated.
Hall 2004 {published data only}
    1. Hall J. English Nature Research Reports Number 611. Phoenix House Therapeutic Conservation Programme: underpinning theory. Peterborough: English Nature, 2004.
Halliwell 2005 {published data only}
    1. Halliwell E. Up and Running: Exercise therapy and the treatment of mild or moderate depression in primary care. London: The Mental Health Foundation, 2005.
Hamilton 2013 {published data only}
    1. Hamilton J. Green shoots of recovery. Mental Health Today 2013;March/April 2013:28‐9. - PubMed
Haste undated {published data only}
    1. Haste J, James‐Moore T. Case study: The Houghton project, Herefordshire. Holt: National Care Farming Initiative (UK), Undated.
Henley 2005 {published data only}
    1. Henley CHV. Paper 3: Health and outdoor recreation A report for Natural England’s outdoor recreation strategy. Peterborough: Natural England, 2005.
Hill 2009 {published data only}
    1. Hill M, Russell J. Young people, volunteering and youth projects: A rapid review of recent evidence. London: Institute for Volunteering Research, 2009:40.
Hill 2012 {published data only}
    1. Hill S. Wilderness Battlefield Gateway Study Concepts for Preservation and Economic Development Orange County, Virginia. Washington: The National Trust for Historic Preservation, 2012.
Hill undated {published data only}
    1. Hill E, Hill E. Case study: Gamelea farm, Derbyshire. Holt: National Care Farm Initiative (UK), Undated.
Hine 2008a {published data only}
    1. Hine R, Peacock J, Pretty J. Care farming in the UK: Evidence and Opportunities. Report for the National Care Farming Initiative (UK). Colchester: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, 2008.
Hine 2008b {published data only}
    1. Hine R, Peacock J, Pretty J. Evaluating the impact of environmental volunteering on behaviours and attitudes to the environment. Cardiff: BTCV Cymru, 2008.
Hopkins 2005 {published data only}
    1. Hopkins G. Stone by stone. Community Care 2005;1588:42‐3.
Hopkins 2006 {published data only}
    1. Hopkins G. Finding keepers (community‐based activities for people with learning disabilities). Community Care 2006;8:34‐35.
Hosking undated {published data only}
    1. Hosking R, Hosking B. Case study: Highfields Happy Dens, Derbyshire. Holt: National Care Farming Initiative (UK), Undated.
Hunt 2010 {published data only}
    1. Hunt Y. The gym, but not as we know it. Green Places 2010:201.
Hynds 2011 {published data only}
    1. Hynds H. Green Exercise Programme Evaluation, Natural England Research Report NERR039. Peterborough: Natural England, 2011.
Hynds 2012 {published data only}
    1. Hynds H, Parsons J. The Green Exercise Programme evaluation. Sheffield: Natural England, 2012.
Icarus 2011a {published data only}
    1. Icarus. Access to Nature; Summary evaluation report. London: Big Lottery Fund, Natural England, 2011.
Icarus 2011b {published data only}
    1. Icarus. Access to Nature Interim evaluation report 3. London: Big Lottery Fund, Natural England, 2011.
IfV 1997 {published data only}
    1. Institute for Volunteering. The 1997 national survey of volunteering. London: Institute for Volunteering Research, 1997.
IfV 2008 {published data only}
    1. Institute for Volunteering. The National Trust Working Holidays Programme: An Impact Evaluation. London: Institute for Volunteering, 2008.
IfV undated {published data only}
    1. Institute for Volunteering. Volunteering and Mental Health: A Review of the Literature. London: Institute for Volunteering, Undated.
Interface 2004 {published data only}
    1. Interface‐NRM Ltd. West Midlands Woodland & Health Pilot Evaluation. Telford: Interface‐NRM Ltd., 2004.
Jenkins 2008 {published data only}
    1. Jenkins C. Conservation with Communities Strategy Northland Conservancy. Wellington: Northland Conservancy, Department of Conservation, 2008.
Jepson 2010 {published data only}
    1. Jepson R. Green prescriptions (the health benefits of nature). Nature of Scotland 2010;Summer 2010(Report):56‐57.
Jepson 2010a {published data only}
    1. Jepson R, Robertson R, Cameron H. Green Prescription Schemes: mapping and current practice. Edinburgh: NHS Scotland, 2010.
Johnston 2011 {published data only}
    1. Johnston M, Percival G. Trees, people and the built environment: Research Report. Urban Trees Research Conference. Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK: Forestry Commission:, 2011.
Jones 2010 {published data only}
    1. Jones M, Kimberlee R, Deave T, Evans S. South West Well‐being Programme. Evaluation Case Studies. Bristol: University of the West of England, 2010.
Kaiser 2011 {published data only}
    1. Kaiser FG, Byrka K. Environmentalism as a trait: gauging people's prosocial personality in terms of environmental engagement. International Journal of Psychology 2011;46(1):71‐9. - PubMed
Keep Wales Tidy 2011 {published data only}
    1. Keep Wales Tidy. I love Tidy Towns because... Cardiff: Welsh Government, 2011.
Kegg 2005 {published data only}
    1. Kegg C. Improving health and the environment. Practice Management 2005;15(9):26‐7.
Key 2011 {published data only}
    1. Key M. Public health and wellbeing: the transformative power of outdoor recreation. (Special issue: Public health and wellbeing: the transformative power of outdoor recreation.). Countryside Recreation 2011;19(2):1‐23.
King 2000 {published data only}
    1. King F. Growing a sustainable community. SUN Dial 2000;11:6.
Kingsley 2006 {published data only}
    1. Kingsley JY, Townsend M. ‘Dig In’ to Social Capital: Community Gardens as Mechanisms for Growing Urban Social Connectedness. Urban Policy and Research 2006;24(4):525‐37.
Kingsley 2009 {published data only}
    1. Kingsley JY, Townsend M, Wilson C. Cultivating health and wellbeing: members' perceptions of the health benefits of a Port Melbourne community garden. Leisure Studies 2009;28(2):207‐19.
Knott 2004 {published data only}
    1. Knott J, Natoli N. Compatible Use Buffers: A New Weapon to Battle Encroachment. Engineer 2004:12‐5.
Koss 2010 {published data only}
    1. Koss RS, Kingsley JY. Volunteer health and emotional wellbeing in marine protected areas. Ocean & Coastal Management 2010;53(8):447‐53.
Krasny 2012 {published data only}
    1. Krasny ME, Tidball KG. Civic ecology: a pathway for Earth Stewardship in cities. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2012;10(5):267‐73.
Lawrence 2009 {published data only}
    1. Lawrence A, Carter C, O’Brien L, Lovell R. Social benefits from the Forestry Commission Public Forest Estate in England: review of current evidence. Farnham: Forest Research, 2009.
Lawrence 2009a {published data only}
    1. Lawrence A, Molteno S, Butterworth T. Community wildlife sites in Oxfordshire: an exploration of ecological and social meanings for green spaces. Igitur 2009;4(1):122‐41.
Lawrence 2011 {published data only}
    1. Lawrence A, Wilmot Z, Tidey P, Pollard A, Hollingdale J, Harris K. Woods and Forests in British Society. Farnham: Forest Research, 2011.
Lawrence 2011a {published data only}
    1. Lawrence A, Ambrose‐Oji BA. Understanding the effects of community woodlands and forests in Great Britain. 18th Commonwealth Forestry Conference. Edinburgh, 2011.
Le Bas 2008 {published data only}
    1. Bas B, Hall J. BTCV Green Gyms. Ecos ‐ A Review of Conservation 2008;29(2):28.
Lee 1997 {published data only}
    1. Lee N. Blooming good health. Health Matters 1997;30:16.
Librett 2005 {published data only}
    1. Librett J, Yore M, Buchner D, Schmid T. Taking pride in America's health: volunteering as a gateway to physical health. American Journal of Health Education 2005;36(1):8‐13.
Lindsay 2006 {published data only}
    1. Lindsay L. Family Volunteering in Environmental Stewardship Initiatives. Toronto: Evergreen, 2006.
Liu 2003 {published data only}
    1. Liu A, Besser T. Social capital and participation in community improvement activities by elderly residents in small towns and rural communities. Rural Sociology 2003;68(3):343‐65.
London WT 2004 {published data only}
    1. Massini P, Cook R, Robertshaw E. London's life‐force: how to bring natural values to community strategies. London: London Wildlife Trust, 2004.
LWC 2012 {published data only}
    1. Lancashire Wildlife Trust. 2. Mud to Muscle: Report to evaluate the impact of Mud to Muscle on the Health and Wellbeing of volunteers during the period October 2010 – October 2011. Preston: Lancashire Wildlife Trust, 2012.
Mackay 2010 {published data only}
    1. Mackay G, Neill J. The effect of "green exercise" on state anxiety and the role of exercise duration, intensity, and greenness: a quasi‐experimental study. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 2010;11(3):238‐45.
Macpherson 2011 {published data only}
    1. Macpherson A, Elliott D, Antonacopoulou E. Children and the natural environment: experiences, influences and interventions ‐ Summary. London: Natural England, 2011.
Makra 1990 {published data only}
    1. Makra EM, Andresen JW. Neighbourhoods volunteer community forestry in Chicago, Illinois, USA. Arboricultural Journal 1990;14(2):117‐27.
Malcolm 2011 {published data only}
    1. Malcolm E, Evans‐Lacko S, Henderson C, Thornicroft G. Community based physical activity programmes to increase levels of fitness, empowerment and reduce stigma. Psychiatrische Praxis 2011;38:S09_4_RE.
Maller 2005b {published data only}
    1. Maller C, Townsend M. Children's mental health and wellbeing and hands‐on contact with nature. International Journal of Learning 2005;12(4):Online only (accessed 1.12.12).
Maller 2008 {published data only}
    1. Maller C, Townsend M, St. Leger R, Henderson‐Wilson C, Pryor A, Prosser L, et al. Healthy Parks, Healthy People: The health benefits of contact with nature in a park context. Melbourne: Faculty of Health, Deakin University, 2008.
Margaret 2004 {published data only}
    1. Margaret G. Volunteering in catchment management groups: empowering the volunteer. Australian Geographer 2004;35(2):193‐208.
Marshall 2011 {published data only}
    1. Marshall Brown A, Johnston L, Currie M, Munoz S. A contribution to the evidence base for evaluating health interventions in natural environment settings. Inverness: Forestry Commission, 2011.
McClelland 2008 {published data only}
    1. McClelland C. An exploration of the views of volunteers in outdoor recreation within a social economy framework. Lakehead: Lakehead University, 2008:1424.
McCormick 2010 {published data only}
    1. McCormick B, Clement R, Fischer D, Lindsay M, Watson R. Measuring the economic benefits of America's Everglades restoration: An Economic Evaluation of Ecosystem Services Affiliated with the World’s Largest Ecosystem Restoration Project. Palmetto Bay: Everglades Foundation/Mather Economics, 2010.
McEwan 2011 {published data only}
    1. McEwan G. Community gains (green space improvement). London: Cabe, 2011.
McLean 2004 {published data only}
    1. McLean D, Jensen R. Community leaders and the urban forest: a model of knowledge and understanding. Society & Natural Resources 2004;17(7):589‐98.
Measham 2008 {published data only}
    1. Measham T, Barnett G. Environmental volunteering: motivations, modes and outcomes. Australian Geographer 2008;39(4):537‐52.
Miles 1998 {published data only}
    1. Miles I, Sullivan WC, Kuo FE. Ecological restoration volunteers: the benefits of participation. Urban Ecosystems 1998;2:27‐41.
Miles 2000 {published data only}
    1. Miles I, Sullivan WC, Kuo FE. Psychological Benefits of Volunteering for Restoration Projects. Ecological Restoration 2000;18(4):218‐27.
Miller 2002 {published data only}
    1. Miller KD, Schleien SJ, Rider C, Hall C, Roche M, Worsley J. Inclusive volunteering: benefits to participants and community. Therapeutic Recreation Journal 2002;36(3):247‐59.
Mills 2001 {published data only}
    1. Mills A, Gilson L. Evaluation and Planning Centre for Health Care: Health economics for developing countries. Paris: OECD, 2001.
Mind 2007 {published data only}
    1. Mind. Ecotherapy: the green agenda for mental health: executive summary. London: Mind, 2007.
Mitchell 2008 {published data only}
    1. Mitchell R, Shaw R. Health impacts of the John Muir Award. Glasgow: Glasgow Centre for Population Health, University of Glasgow, 2008.
Moor 2011 {published data only}
    1. Moor T. Offender Pathway to Employment Programme (OPEP): Achievements after 2 years. South Brent: Moor Trees, 2011.
Morris 2006 {published data only}
    1. Morris J, Urry J. Growing places: A study of social change in The National Forest. Farnham: Forest Research, 2006.
Morris 2011 {published data only}
    1. Morris J, O’Brien E. Encouraging healthy outdoor activity amongst under‐represented groups: an evaluation of the Active England woodland projects. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2011;10(4):323‐33.
Morrow‐Howell 2003 {published data only}
    1. Morrow‐Howell N, Hinterlong J, Rozario PA, Tang F. Effects of volunteering on the well‐being of older adults. Journals of Gerontology ‐ Series B Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 2003;58(3):S137‐45. - PubMed
Mosher 2008 {published data only}
    1. Mosher D, Lachman B, Greenberg M, Nichols T, Rosen B, Willis H. Green Warriors: Army Environmental Considerations for Contingency Operations from Planning Through Post‐Conflict. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2008.
Moss 2012 {published data only}
    1. Moss S. Natural Childhood. Warrington: National Trust, 2012.
Nath 1994 {published data only}
    1. Nath K. Eco‐clubs: A scheme for participation of schoolchildren in environmental conservation. Environmental Conservation 1994;21(1):69‐70.
Natural England undated a {published data only}
    1. Natural England. Volunteering in nature. Access to Nature early findings. London: Natural England, Undated.
Natural England undated b {published data only}
    1. Natural England. A Natural Curiosity. Access to Nature early findings. London: Natural England, Undated.
Natural England undated c {published data only}
    1. Natural England. Best Foot Forward. Access to Nature early findings. London: Natural England, Undated.
Natural Heritage 2004 {published data only}
    1. Natural Heritage. No Lycra required (Green Gym). Vol. 24, London: Natural Heritage, 2004.
Nazroo 2012 {published data only}
    1. Nazroo J, Matthews K. The impact of volunteering on well‐being in later life. Cardiff: Women's Royal Voluntary Service, 2012.
NEF 2005 {published data only}
    1. New Economics Foundation. Well‐being and the environment: achieving ‘One Planet Living’ and maintaining quality of life. London: New Economics Foundation, 2005.
Nehring 1995 {published data only}
    1. Nehring J, Hill RG, Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health. The Blackthorn Garden Project : community care in the context of primary care. London: Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health, 1995.
Newlands 2008a {published data only}
    1. Newlands. Measuring the social impact of Belfield – a new community woodland April – July 2008. Bristol: Forestry Commission, 2008.
Newlands 2008b {published data only}
    1. Newlands. Measuring the social impact of Bidston Moss community woodland November 2007 – January 2008. Bristol: Forestry Commission, 2008.
Newlands 2008c {published data only}
    1. Newlands. Measuring the social impact of Brickfields – a new community woodland June – October 2008. Bristol: Forestry Commission, 2008.
Newlands 2008d {published data only}
    1. Newlands. Measuring the social impact of Brockholes Wetland and Woodland Nature Reserve June – October 2008. Bristol: Forestry Commission, 2008.
Newlands 2008e {published data only}
    1. Newlands. Measuring the social impact of LIVIA Bury – a new community woodland June – October 2008. Bristol: Forestry Commission, 2008.
Newlands 2008f {published data only}
    1. Newlands. Measuring the social impact of LIVIA Salford – a new community woodland June – October 2008. Bristol: Forestry Commission, 2008.
Newlands 2008g {published data only}
    1. Newlands. Measuring the social impact of Moston Vale – a new community woodland June – October 2008. Bristol: Forestry Commission, 2008.
Newlands 2008h {published data only}
    1. Newlands. Measuring the social impact of Town Lane – a new community woodland June – October 2008. Bristol: Forestry Commission, 2008.
Newlands 2008i {published data only}
    1. Newlands. Newlands Executive Briefing: Transforming brown field into thriving, durable and economically‐viable natural environments. Bristol: Forestry Commission, 2008.
Nilsson 2006 {published data only}
    1. Nilsson K. Papers from sessions on forests, trees and human health and wellbeing. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2006;5(3):109‐149.
Nilsson 2011 {published data only}
    1. Nilsson K, Sangster M, Gallis C, Hartig T, Vries S, Seeland K, et al. Forests, Trees and Human Health. London: Springer, 2011.
Nordh 2009 {published data only}
    1. Nordh H, Grahn P, Wahrborg P. Meaningful activities in the forest, a way back from exhaustion and long‐term sick leave. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2009;8(3):207‐19.
NWKCP 2012 {published data only}
    1. North West Kent Countryside Partnership. Naturally Active social marketing project: Focus group interview notes. Dartford: North West Kent Countryside Partnership, 2012.
O'Brien 1996 {published data only}
    1. O'Brien M. Understanding community participation in conservation. In: Saunders DA, Craig JL, Mattiske EM editor(s). Nature Conservation; The role of networks. Vol. 4, Totnes: NHBS, 1996:209‐12.
O'Brien 2004 {published data only}
    1. O’Brien L. A sort of magical place: People’s experiences of woodlands in northwest and southeast England. Farnham: Forest Research, 2004.
O'Brien 2005 {published data only}
    1. O’Brien L. Trees and woodlands: Nature’s health service. Farnham: Forest Research, 2005.
O'Brien 2006a {published data only}
    1. O'Brien E. Social housing and green space: a case study in Inner London. Forestry 2006;79(5):535‐51.
O'Brien 2006b {published data only}
    1. O'Brien L, Greenland M, Snowdon H. Using woodlands and woodland grants to promote public health and wellbeing. Scottish Forestry 2006;60(2):18‐24.
O'Brien 2006c {published data only}
    1. O’Brien L. "Strengthening heart and mind": using woodlands to improve mental and physical well‐being. Unasylva 2006;57(2):56‐61.
O'Brien 2006d {published data only}
    1. O’Brien L. Using woodlands and woodland grants to promote public health and wellbeing. Scottish Forestry 2006;60(2):18‐25.
O'Brien 2007 {published data only}
    1. O'Brien L, Snowdon H. Health and well‐being in woodlands: a case study of the Chopwell Wood Health Project. Arboricultural Journal 2007;30(1):45‐60.
O'Brien 2010 {published data only}
    1. O’Brien L, Williams K, Stewart A. Urban health and health inequalities and the role of urban forestry in Britain: A review. Farnham: Forest Research, 2010.
O'Brien 2011a {published data only}
    1. O’Brien L. Using woodlands to improve individual and community well‐being: interventions, activities and barriers. Well‐being 2011. Birmingham City University (18th‐19th July 2011), 2011.
O'Brien 2011b {published data only}
    1. O’Brien L, Marzano M. Volunteering in and for Scotland’s forests: Report to Forestry Commission Scotland. Farnham: Forest Research, 2011.
O'Brien undated {published data only}
    1. O’Brien L. Research Summary: Hill Holt Wood: social enterprise and community woodland. Farnham: Forest Research, Undated.
Ockenden 2007 {published data only}
    1. Ockenden N. Volunteering in the natural outdoors in the UK and Ireland: A literature review. London: Institute for Volunteering Research, 2007.
Ockenden 2008 {published data only}
    1. Ockenden N. Environmental volunteering in the North East of England. London: Institute for Volunteering Research, 2008.
Ockenden 2009 {published data only}
    1. Ockenden N, Russell J. ‘All woolly hats and wellies’ – what non volunteers can teach us about environmental volunteering. NCVO / VSSN Researching the Voluntary Sector Conference. Warwick, 2009.
OECD 2001 {published data only}
    1. The Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD). Human health and the environment. Vol. OECD Environmental Outlook, Paris: OECD Publishing, 2001.
Ohmer 2009 {published data only}
    1. Ohmer ML. Community gardening and community development: individual, social and community benefits of a community conservation program. Journal of Community Practice 2009;17(4):377‐399.
Ojala 2007 {published data only}
    1. Ojala M. Confronting macro social worries: Worry about environmental problems and proactive coping among a group of young volunteers. Futures 2007;39(6):729‐45.
OPENspace 2010 {published data only}
    1. OPENspace. Wild Adventure Space: its role in teenagers’ lives. Natural England Commissioned Report NECR025. Peterborough: Natural England, 2010.
Orsini 1996 {published data only}
    1. Orsini JP, Hall G, Group MP. The Malleefowl Preservation Group in Western Australia: a case study in community participation. Nature Conservation; The role of networks 1996;4:517‐22.
Orton 2008 {published data only}
    1. Orton A. Evaluating cross‐community work in Holme Wood: making connections?. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2008.
Osprey 2012 {published data only}
    1. Osprey O. In: Husk K editor(s). 'Film and Zoom' quotes. Weston‐super‐Mare: Osprey Outdoors, 2012.
Owen 2008 {published data only}
    1. Owen R, Powell J, Kambites C, Lewis N. An evaluation of Cydcoed: the social and economic benefits of using trees and woodlands for community development in Wales. Farnham: Forest Research, 2008.
Page 2012 {published data only}
    1. Page A. Food growing in schools task force: executive summary. Coventry: Garden Organic, 2012.
Palmer undated {published data only}
    1. Palmer E. The Social Impacts of Heritage‐led Regeneration. London: The Architectural Heritage Fund, Undated.
Passy 2010 {published data only}
    1. Passy R, Morris M, Reed F. Impact of school gardening on learning: Final report submitted to the Royal Horticultural Society. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research, 2010.
Pati 2010 {published data only}
    1. Pati A. The green fingers of Greenwich (community garden). Greenwich: Green Fingers Greenwich, 2010.
Patrick 2011 {published data only}
    1. Patrick R, Capetola T. It's here! Are we ready? Five case studies of health promotion practices that address climate change from within Victorian health care settings. Health promotion journal of Australia: official journal of Australian Association of Health Promotion Professionals 2011;22:61‐67. - PubMed
Peacock 2007 {published data only}
    1. Peacock J, Hine R, Pretty J. Got the Blues, then find some Greenspace. The Mental Health Benefits of Green Exercise Activities and Green Care. Mind week report: Mind report 1.0, Feb 2007. Colchester: Centre for Environment and Society, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, 2007.
Perlaviciute 2011 {published data only}
    1. Perlaviciute G, Steg L. Quality of life in residential environments. Well‐being 2011. Birminham City University (18th‐19th July 2011), 2011.
Pillemer 2008 {published data only}
    1. Pillemer K, Wagenet LP. Taking action: Environmental volunteerism and civic engagement by older people. Public Policy and Aging Report 2008.
Pinder 2009 {published data only}
    1. Pinder R, Kessel A, Green J, Grundy C. Exploring perceptions of health and the environment: a qualitative study of Thames Chase Community Forest. Health & Place 2009;15(1):349‐56. - PubMed
Pir 2009 {published data only}
    1. Pir A. In Search of a Resilient Food System: A Qualitative Study of the Transition Town Totnes Food Group. Vol. MPhil, Blindern: University of Oslo: Centre for Development and the Environment, 2009.
Pollard 2009 {published data only}
    1. Pollard A. People and Places Year one evaluation summary. London: Big Lottery Fund, 2009.
Pretty 2003 {published data only}
    1. Pretty J, Griffin M, Sellens M, Pretty C. Green Exercise: Complementary Roles of Nature, Exercise and Diet in Physical and Emotional Well‐Being and Implications for Public Health Policy. Ipswich: Centre for Environment and Society, University of Essex, 2003.
Quayle 2008 {published data only}
    1. Quayle H. The true value of community farms and gardens: social, environmental, health and economic. Bristol: Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens, 2008.
Qureshi undated {published data only}
    1. Qureshi N, Bradford V. Well‐being and the natural environment: a happy marriage?. London: Big Lottery Fund, CLES, NEF, Undated.
Ralston 2005 {published data only}
    1. Ralston R, Rhoden S. The motivations and expectations of volunteers on cycle trails: The case of the National Cycle Network, UK. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development 2005;2(2):101‐14.
Randler 2005 {published data only}
    1. Randler C, Ilg A, Kern J. Cognitive and emotional evaluation of an amphibian conservation program for elementary school students. Journal of Environmental Education 2005;37(1):43‐52.
Raske 2010 {published data only}
    1. Raske M. Nursing home quality of life: study of an enabling garden. Journal of Gerontological Social Work 2010;53(4):336‐51. - PubMed
Rawcliffe 2009 {published data only}
    1. Rawcliffe P. Developing the contribution of the natural heritage to a healthier Scotland. Inverness: Scottich Natural Heritage, 2009.
Reeves 2010 {published data only}
    1. Reeves L, Emeagwali SN. Students Dig for Real School Gardens. Techniques: Connecting Education and Careers 2010;85(4):34‐7.
Reid 2011 {published data only}
    1. Reid L, Hunter C. Exploring the potential for a 'double dividend': living well and living greener. Well‐being 2011. Birmingham City University (18th‐19th July 2011), 2011.
Reilly 2007 {published data only}
    1. Reilly C, Macrae R. Green Team: Final Report. Stirling: Volunteer Development Scotland, 2007.
Reilly 2009 {published data only}
    1. Reilly C. Volunteering and the Historic Environment. Stirling: Volunteer Development Scotland, 2009.
Reilly 2011 {published data only}
    1. Reilly C. Updating the Scottish Biodiversity Strategy: engagement indicator E4. Inverness: Scottish National Heritage, 2011.
Reynolds 1999 {published data only}
    1. Reynolds V. The Green Gym. SportEX Medicine. United Kingdom, 1999, issue 3:22‐3.
Reynolds 2000 {published data only}
    1. Reynolds V. What happened down at the green gym. Practice Nurse. United Kingdom: Elsevier Ltd, 2000; Vol. 20, issue 9:520‐3.
RHS 2011 {published data only}
    1. Royal Horticultural Society. Britain in Bloom: transforming local communities. London: Royal Horticultural Society, 2011.
Richardson 2009 {published data only}
    1. Richardson D, Jones G. A review of roof greening in Greater Manchester. Liverpool: Natural Economy Northwest, 2009.
Ridgers 2010a {published data only}
    1. Ridgers N, Sayers J. Natural Play in the Forest: Forest School evaluation (families). Sheffield: Natural England, 2010.
Ridgers 2010b {published data only}
    1. Ridgers N, Sayers J. Natural Play in the Forest: Forest School Evaluation (Children). Sheffield: Natural England, 2010.
Ridgers 2012 {published data only}
    1. Ridgers N, Knowles Z, Sayers J. Encouraging play in the natural environment: A child‐focused case study of Forest School. Children's Geographies 2012;10(1):49‐65.
Roth 2004 {published data only}
    1. Roth K. Project Trail repair in Vermont. Shape 2004; Vol. 23, issue 12:44‐6.
RSPB 2012 {published data only}
    1. RSPB Cymru. RSPB Cymru volunteering impact assessment. Cardiff: RSPB Cymru, 2012.
Rural Institute 2009 {published data only}
    1. Rural Institute. Strategic review of South Solway Peatlands for People: review, business plan and feasibility study. Liverpool: Natural Economy Northwest, 2009.
Russell 2000 {published data only}
    1. Russell H, Killoran A. Public health and regeneration Making the links. London: Health Education Authority, 2000.
Russell 2009 {published data only}
    1. Russell J. ‘Making volunteering easier’: the story of environmental volunteering in South West England. London: Institute for Volunteering Research, 2009.
Ryan 2005 {published data only}
    1. Ryan R, Grese R. Urban volunteers and the environment: forest and prairie restoration. In: Barlett, Peggy F [Ed] editor(s). Urban Place: Reconnecting to the Natural World.. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005:173‐88.
Sally 2008a {published data only}
    1. Sally DA, Alison MA. Evaluation of the Green Spaces and Sustainable Communities initiative. The Enfys programme in Wales. London: Big Lottery Fund, 2008.
Sally 2008b {published data only}
    1. Sally DA, Alison MA. Evaluation of the Green Spaces and Sustainable Communities initiative. Final report on Northern Ireland. London: Big Lottery Fund, 2008.
Sally 2008c {published data only}
    1. Sally DA, Alison MA. Green Spaces and Sustainable Communities: The Fresh Futures programme in Scotland. London: Big Lottery Fund, 2008.
Scottish Gvmnt 2007 {published data only}
    1. Scottish Government. The Opportunities For Environmental Volunteering To Deliver Scottish Executive Policies: A Discussion Paper. Edinburgh: Scottish Government, 2007.
Sempik undated {published data only}
    1. Sempik J. Being Outside: exploring perceptions of nature and health in therapeutic gardens. Loughborough: Centre for Child and Family Research, Department of Social Sciences, Loughborough University, undated.
Sheldon 2009 {published data only}
    1. Sheldon R, Jones N, Margo J, Purvis D. Rallying Together: An IPPR report for Raleigh International Trust A research study of Raleigh’s work with disadvantaged young people. London: IPPR, 2009.
Silva 2012 {published data only}
    1. Silva J, Keulenaer F, Johnstone N. Environmental quality and life satisfaction: evidence based on micro‐data. OECD Environment Working Papers 44. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2012.
Sinclair 2007 {published data only}
    1. Sinclair KM, Hamlin MJ. Self‐reported health benefits in patients recruited into New Zealand's 'Green Prescription' primary health care program. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 2007;38(6):1158‐67. - PubMed
Small Woods 2009 {published data only}
    1. Small Woods Assocation. The Tick Wood Project: a case study. Telford: Small Woods Association, 2009.
Small Woods 2010 {published data only}
    1. Small Woods Association. Wye Wood Project Herefordshire: a case study. Telford: Small Woods Association, 2010.
Small Woods 2011b {published data only}
    1. Small Woods Association. Woods for wellbeing in Telford ‐ end of grant report to the Big Lottery. Telford: Small Woods Association, 2011.
Small Woods 2012 {published data only}
    1. Small Woods Association. Venture Out Evaluation. Telford: Small Woods Association, 2012.
SNH 2006 {published data only}
    1. Scottish Natural Heritage. Volunteering in the natural heritage; an audit and review of natural heritage volunteering in Scotland. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 219. Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage, 2006.
SNH 2010 {published data only}
    1. Scottish Natural Heritage. Review of Research into Links between Enjoyment and Understanding of the Natural Heritage. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No.243. Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage, 2010.
SNH 2011a {published data only}
    1. Scottish Natural Heritage. The Participant: People and nature ‐ reaching new audiences. No.6. Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage, 2011.
SNH 2011b {published data only}
    1. Scottish Natural Heritage. People and nature: learning through doing Action research programme Summary and learning outcomes. Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage, 2011.
SNH 2012 {published data only}
    1. Scottish Natural Heritage. Green Exercise Case Studies; Midlothian Ranger Service. Vol. Midlothian Council, Scottish Government, Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage, 2012.
SNH undated {published data only}
    1. Scottish Natural Heritage. Demonstrating the links: action research on greenspaces. Inverness: Scottish National Heritage, Undated.
Snowdon 2006 {published data only}
    1. Snowdon H. Evaluation of the Chopwell Wood Health Project. Newcastle upon Tyne: Primary Care Development Centre, 2006.
Son 2007 {published data only}
    1. Son JS, Mowen AJ, Kerstetter DL. The relationship of volunteerism to the physical activity and health of older adults in a metropolitan park setting. Vol. General Technical Report ‐ Northern Research Station, USDA Forest Service; 2007.NRS‐14, 350‐354.9 ref, Newtown Square: USDA Forest Service, 2007.
Stacy‐Marks undated {published data only}
    1. Stacy‐Marks J. Case study: The Amelia methodist trust farm, Vale of Glamorgan. Holt: National Care Farming Initiative (UK), Undated.
Stevens 2011 {published data only}
    1. Stevens P. Healthy, happy, hippy: Sustainability as an emergent property of well‐being. Well‐being 2011. Birmingham City University (18th‐19th July 2011), 2011.
Stewart 2010 {published data only}
    1. Stewart A, O’Brien L. Inventory of social evidence and practical programmes relating to trees, woods and forests and urban/peri‐urban regeneration, place‐making and place‐shaping. Farnham: Forest Research, 2010.
Stewart undated {published data only}
    1. Stewart A, Bell S, Sanesi G, Vreese R, Arnberger A. The societal benefits of (peri)‐urban forestry in Europe. Briefing paper undated.
Stigsdotter 2011 {published data only}
    1. Stigsdotter U, Palsdottir A, Burls A, Chermaz A, Ferrini F, Grahn P. Nature‐Based Therapeutic Interventions. In: Nilsson K, Sangster M, Gallis C, Hartig T, Vries S, Seeland K, Schipperijn J editor(s). Forests, Trees and Human Health. Springer Netherlands, 2011:309‐42.
Sutcliffe 2011 {published data only}
    1. Sutcliffe R, Pounds R, Albrow H, Binnie C, Nockolds I. The Environmental Conservation Industry in Great Britain: Size, structure and skills. Coventry: Lantra, 2011.
Svendsen 2011 {published data only}
    1. Svendsen E. Cultivating health and well‐being through environmental stewardship. American Journal of Public Health 2011;101(11):2008. - PMC - PubMed
Swan 1993 {published data only}
    1. Swan JA. Kinship with nature: The psychology of environmental conservation. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part C Environmental Carcinogenesis and Ecotoxicology Reviews 1993;11(2):185‐99.
The Youth Foundat undated {published data only}
    1. The Youth Foundation. Going green and beating the blues. The local approach to improving wellbeing and environmental sustainability. London: The Youth Foundation, Undated.
Thrive 2011 {published data only}
    1. Thrive. Evidence, messages,learning. Reading: Thrive, 2011.
Tickle 2010 {published data only}
    1. Tickle L. Take a walk on the wild side. Young Minds Magazine 2010, issue 106:32‐33.
Timmins 2006 {published data only}
    1. Timmins C. Public Awareness of the Countryside Code: a report for the Countryside Council for Wales. Cardiff: Beaufort Research Ltd, 2006.
Townsend 2010 {published data only}
    1. Townsend M, Weerasuriya R. Beyond Blue to Green: The benefits of contact with nature for mental health and well‐being. Burwood: Beyond Blue, 2010.
Urban Environment P 2000 {published data only}
    1. Urban Environmental Programme. Tribal Wetlands Program Highlights. Washington: Office of Wetlands, Environmental Protection Agency, 2000.
US AEPI 2011 {published data only}
    1. US AEPI. Army foresight: searching for sustainability. Washington: Department of Defense, 2011.
US AEPI 2012 {published data only}
    1. US AEPI. Strategy for the environment. Washington: Department of Defense, 2012.
Vachta 2002 {published data only}
    1. Vachta KE, McDonough MH. Participatory development and the sustainable city: community forestry in Detroit. In: Brebbia CA, MartinDuque JF, Wadhwa LC editor(s). Sustainable City Iife: Urban Regeneration and Sustainability. Advances in Architecture Series. Vol. 14, WIT Press, 2002:335‐44.
Verma 2010 {published data only}
    1. Verma R. People and Places Programme Year two evaluation summary. Big Lottery Fund Wales, 2010.
Volunteer Cornwall 2011 {published data only}
    1. Volunteer Cornwall. In: Harrison R editor(s). Conference Report: Environment, Well‐being and Volunteering, exploring the connections. Truro: Volunteer Cornwall, 2011.
Wavehill 2009 {published data only}
    1. Wavehill C. Evaluation of the People and Places Programme Annual Report 2009. Aberaron: Big Lottery Fund Wales, 2009.
WCVA 2012 {published data only}
    1. Wales Council for Voluntary Action. Green volunteering in Wales: Building on good practice. Cardiff: Wales Council for Voluntary Action, 2012.
WMCP 2008 {published data only}
    1. WMCP. Care Farming: Harvesting the Benefits: A Review of Herefordshire PPO Scheme use of SHIFT/BODS Care Farm. Worcester: West Mercia Constabulary and Probation, 2008.
Wouters 2011 {published data only}
    1. Wouters M. Socio‐economic effects of concession‐based tourism in New Zealand’s national parks, Science for Conservation 309. Wellington: Department of Conservation, 2011.
Wright 2000 {published data only}
    1. Wright SD, Lund DA. Gray and green?: Stewardship and sustainability in an aging society. Journal of Aging Studies 2000;14(3):229‐49.
WTL 2009 {published data only}
    1. Wildlife Trust for Lancashire. The Sound of Sopranos: Supporting people for their contribution to the economy, environment and community. Liverpool: Natural Economy Northwest, 2009.

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